1. Halberg F, Cornelissen G, Katinas G, Syutkina EV, Sothern RB, Zaslavskaya R, Watanabe Y, Schwartzkopff O, Otsuka K, Tarquini R, Frederico P, Siggelova J 2003 Transdisciplinary unifying implications of circadian findings in the 1950s. J Circadian Rhythms 1:2
2. Albers N 2001 Overview of pulse actions in the human. Growth Horm IGF Res 11 Suppl A:S39-42
3. Hauffa BP 2001 Clinical implications of pulsatile hormone signals. Growth Horm IGF Res 11 Suppl A:S1-8
4.
5. Stephan FK 2002 The "other" circadian system: food as a Zeitgeber. J Biol Rhythms 17:284-292
6. Charloux A, Gronfier C, Lonsdorfer-Wolf E, Piquard F, Brandenberger G 1999 Aldosterone release during the sleep-wake cycle in humans. Am J Physiol 276:E43-49
7. Liu CH,
8. Rosenfeld RS, Rosenberg BJ,
9. l'Allemand D, Biason-Lauber A 2000 Intra-adrenal regulation of androgen synthesis. Eur J Clin Invest 30 Suppl 3:28-33
10. Jacobson L 2005 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis regulation. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 34:271-292, vii
11. Keller-Wood ME, Dallman MF 1984 Corticosteroid inhibition of ACTH secretion. Endocr Rev 5:1-24
12. Spencer RL, Kim PJ, Kalman BA, Cole MA 1998 Evidence for mineralocorticoid receptor facilitation of glucocorticoid receptor-dependent regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. Endocrinology 139:2718-2726
13. Young EA, Lopez JF, Murphy-Weinberg V, Watson SJ, Akil H 1998 The role of mineralocorticoid receptors in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis regulation in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:3339-3345
14. Gass P, Kretz O, Wolfer DP, Berger S, Tronche F, Reichardt HM, Kellendonk C, Lipp HP, Schmid W, Schutz G 2000 Genetic disruption of mineralocorticoid receptor leads to impaired neurogenesis and granule cell degeneration in the hippocampus of adult mice. EMBO Rep 1:447-451
15. De Kloet ER, Vreugdenhil E, Oitzl MS, Joels M 1998 Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease. Endocr Rev 19:269-301
16. Herman JP, Figueiredo H, Mueller NK, Ulrich-Lai Y, Ostrander MM, Choi DC, Cullinan WE 2003 Central mechanisms of stress integration: hierarchical circuitry controlling hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical responsiveness. Front Neuroendocrinol 24:151-180
17. Buckley TM, Schatzberg AF 2005 On the interactions of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and sleep: normal HPA axis activity and circadian rhythm, exemplary sleep disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:3106-3114
18. Veldhuis JD, Iranmanesh A, Lizarralde G, Johnson ML 1989 Amplitude modulation of a burstlike mode of cortisol secretion subserves the circadian glucocorticoid rhythm. Am J Physiol 257:E6-14
19. Veldhuis JD, Keenan DM, Roelfsema F, Iranmanesh A 2005 Aging-related adaptations in the corticotropic axis: modulation by gender. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 34:993-1014, x-xi
20. Pruessner JC, Hellhammer DH, Kirschbaum C 1999 Burnout, perceived stress, and cortisol responses to awakening. Psychosom Med 61:197-204
21. Wilhelm I, Born J, Kudielka BM, Schlotz W, Wust S 2007 Is the cortisol awakening rise a response to awakening? Psychoneuroendocrinology 32:358-366
22. Fries E, Dettenborn L, Kirschbaum C 2008 The cortisol awakening response (CAR): Facts and future directions. Int J Psychophysiol
23. Veldhuis JD, Johnson ML 1986 Cluster analysis: a simple, versatile, and robust algorithm for endocrine pulse detection. Am J Physiol 250:E486-493
24. Veldhuis JD, Faria A, Vance ML, Evans WS, Thorner MO, Johnson ML 1988 Contemporary tools for the analysis of episodic growth hormone secretion and clearance in vivo. Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl 347:63-82
25. Licinio J, Mantzoros C, Negrao AB, Cizza G, Wong ML, Bongiorno PB, Chrousos GP, Karp B, Allen C, Flier JS, Gold PW 1997 Human leptin levels are pulsatile and inversely related to pituitary-adrenal function. Nat Med 3:575-579
26. Licinio J, Negrao AB, Mantzoros C, Kaklamani V, Wong ML, Bongiorno PB, Mulla A, Cearnal L, Veldhuis JD, Flier JS, McCann SM, Gold PW 1998 Synchronicity of frequently sampled, 24-h concentrations of circulating leptin, luteinizing hormone, and estradiol in healthy women. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95:2541-2546
27. Licinio J, Negrao AB, Mantzoros C, Kaklamani V, Wong ML, Bongiorno PB, Negro PP, Mulla A, Veldhuis JD, Cearnal L, Flier JS, Gold PW 1998 Sex differences in circulating human leptin pulse amplitude: clinical implications. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:4140-4147
28. Licinio J, Wong ML, Altemus M, Bongiorno PB, Bernat A, Brabant G, Tamarkin L, Gold PW 1994 Pulsatility of 24-hour concentrations of circulating interleukin-1-alpha in healthy women: analysis of integrated basal levels, discrete pulse properties, and correlation with simultaneous interleukin-2 concentrations. Neuroimmunomodulation 1:242-250
29. Oerter KE, Guardabasso V, Rodbard D 1986 Detection and characterization of peaks and estimation of instantaneous secretory rate for episodic pulsatile hormone secretion. Comput Biomed Res 19:170-191
30. Jenkins GM,
31. Mantzoros CS, Ozata M, Negrao AB, Suchard MA, Ziotopoulou M, Caglayan S, Elashoff RM, Cogswell RJ, Negro P, Liberty V, Wong ML, Veldhuis J, Ozdemir IC, Gold PW, Flier JS, Licinio J 2001 Synchronicity of frequently sampled thyrotropin (TSH) and leptin concentrations in healthy adults and leptin-deficient subjects: evidence for possible partial TSH regulation by leptin in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:3284-3291
32. Bennet JE, Racine-Poon A,
33. Wong ML, Kling MA, Munson PJ, Listwak S, Licinio J, Prolo P, Karp B, McCutcheon IE, Geracioti TD, Jr., DeBellis MD, Rice KC, Goldstein DS, Veldhuis JD, Chrousos GP, Oldfield EH, McCann SM, Gold PW 2000 Pronounced and sustained central hypernoradrenergic function in major depression with melancholic features: relation to hypercortisolism and corticotropin-releasing hormone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97:325-330
34. Mojon A, Fernandez JR, Hermida RC 1992 Chronolab: an interactive software package for chronobiologic time series analysis written for the Macintosh computer. Chronobiol Int 9:403-412
35. Wong ML, Licinio J, Yildiz BO, Mantzoros CS, Prolo P, Kling M, Gold PW 2004 Simultaneous and continuous 24-hour plasma and cerebrospinal fluid leptin measurements: dissociation of concentrations in central and peripheral compartments. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:258-265
36. Veldhuis JD, Carlson ML, Johnson ML 1987 The pituitary gland secretes in bursts: appraising the nature of glandular secretory impulses by simultaneous multiple-parameter deconvolution of plasma hormone concentrations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 84:7686-7690
37. Veldhuis JD, Evans WS, Urban RJ, Rogol AD, Johnson ML 1988 Physiologic attributes of the luteinizing hormone pulse signal in the human. Cross-validation studies in men. J Androl 9:69-77
38. Veldhuis JD, Johnson ML 1992 Deconvolution analysis of hormone data. Methods Enzymol 210:539-575
39. Iranmanesh A, Grisso B, Veldhuis JD 1994 Low basal and persistent pulsatile growth hormone secretion are revealed in normal and hyposomatotropic men studied with a new ultrasensitive chemiluminescence assay. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78:526-535
40. van den Berg G, Pincus SM, Veldhuis JD, Frolich M, Roelfsema F 1997 Greater disorderliness of ACTH and cortisol release accompanies pituitary-dependent Cushing's disease. Eur J Endocrinol 136:394-400
41. Andreev VP, Paz-Filho G, Wong ML, Licinio J 2008 Deconvolution of Insulin Secretion, Insulin Hepatic Extraction Post-hepatic Delivery Rates and Sensitivity during 24-hour Standardized Meals: Time Course of Glucose Homeostasis in Leptin Replacement Treatment. Horm Metab Res
42. Pincus S, Singer BH 1996 Randomness and degrees of irregularity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93:2083-2088
43. Pincus SM, Keefe DL 1992 Quantification of hormone pulsatility via an approximate entropy algorithm. Am J Physiol 262:E741-754
44. Pincus SM 1992 Approximating Markov chains. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89:4432-4436
45. Pincus SM 1991 Approximate entropy as a measure of system complexity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 88:2297-2301
46. Pincus SM 1994 Greater signal regularity may indicate increased system isolation. Math Biosci 122:161-181
47. Hartman ML, Pincus SM, Johnson ML, Matthews DH, Faunt LM, Vance ML, Thorner MO, Veldhuis JD 1994 Enhanced basal and disorderly growth hormone secretion distinguish acromegalic from normal pulsatile growth hormone release. J Clin Invest 94:1277-1288
48. Licinio J, Caglayan S, Ozata M, Yildiz BO, de Miranda PB, O'Kirwan F, Whitby R, Liang L, Cohen P, Bhasin S, Krauss RM, Veldhuis JD, Wagner AJ, DePaoli AM, McCann SM, Wong ML 2004 Phenotypic effects of leptin replacement on morbid obesity, diabetes mellitus, hypogonadism, and behavior in leptin-deficient adults. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101:4531-4536
49. Copinschi G 2005 Metabolic and endocrine effects of sleep deprivation. Essent Psychopharmacol 6:341-347
50. Leproult R, Copinschi G, Buxton O, Van Cauter E 1997 Sleep loss results in an elevation of cortisol levels the next evening. Sleep 20:865-870
51. Carroll, Curtis GC, Mendels J 1976 Neuroendocrine regulation in depression. I. Limbic system-adrenocortical dysfunction. Arch Gen Psychiatry 33:1039-1044
52. Carroll BJ, Curtis GC, Mendels J 1976 Neuroendocrine regulation in depression. II. Discrimination of depressed from nondepressed patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 33:1051-1058
53. Young EA,
54. Young EA,
55. Carroll BJ, Cassidy F, Naftolowitz D, Tatham NE, Wilson WH, Iranmanesh A, Liu PY, Veldhuis JD 2007 Pathophysiology of hypercortisolism in depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl:90-103
56. Liu JH, Kazer RR, Rasmussen DD 1987 Characterization of the twenty-four hour secretion patterns of adrenocorticotropin and cortisol in normal women and patients with Cushing's disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 64:1027-1035
57. Orth DN 1991 Differential diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome. N Engl J Med 325:957-959
58. Chrousos GP, Gold PW 1992 The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. Overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. JAMA 267:1244-1252
59. Cohen S, Kessler RC, Gordon UL 1995 Strategies for measuring stress in studies of psychiatric and physical disorder.
. In: Cohen S, Kessler RC, Gordon UL
eds. Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists.
60. Herman JP, Seroogy K 2006 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, glucocorticoids, and neurologic disease. Neurol Clin 24:461-481, vi
61. Ceccatelli S, Villar MJ, Goldstein M, Hokfelt T 1989 Expression of c-Fos immunoreactivity in transmitter-characterized neurons after stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 86:9569-9573
62. Lightman SL 1988 The neuroendocrine paraventricular hypothalamus: receptors, signal transduction, mRNA and neurosecretion. J Exp Biol 139:31-49
63. Ma XM, Lightman SL 1998 The arginine vasopressin and corticotrophin-releasing hormone gene transcription responses to varied frequencies of repeated stress in rats. J Physiol 510 ( Pt 2):605-614
64. Cho YM, Kim SY, Cho BY, Lee HK, Yang HK, Lee KU 2000 Dissociation between plasma adrenocorticotropin and serum cortisol level during the early postoperative period after gastrectomy. Horm Res 53:246-250
65. Roth-Isigkeit AK, Schmucker P 1997 Postoperative dissociation of blood levels of cortisol and adrenocorticotropin after coronary artery bypass grafting surgery. Steroids 62:695-699
66. Bornstein SR, Engeland WC, Ehrhart-Bornstein M, Herman JP 2008 Dissociation of ACTH and glucocorticoids. Trends Endocrinol Metab 19:175-180
67. Perrot D, Bonneton A, Dechaud H, Motin J, Pugeat M 1993 Hypercortisolism in septic shock is not suppressible by dexamethasone infusion. Crit Care Med 21:396-401
68. Schuetz P, Muller B 2006 The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in critical illness. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 35:823-838, x
69. Venkataraman S, Munoz R, Candido C, Witchel SF 2007 The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in critical illness. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 8:365-373
70. Ulrich-Lai YM, Figueiredo HF, Ostrander MM, Choi DC, Engeland WC, Herman JP 2006 Chronic stress induces adrenal hyperplasia and hypertrophy in a subregion-specific manner. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 291:E965-973
71. Gruver AL, Sempowski GD 2008 Cytokines, leptin, and stress-induced thymic atrophy. J Leukoc Biol 84:915-923
72. Mason JW, Giller EL, Kosten TR, Ostroff RB, Podd L 1986 Urinary free-cortisol levels in posttraumatic stress disorder patients. J Nerv Ment Dis 174:145-149
73. Yehuda R, Golier JA, Halligan SL, Meaney M, Bierer LM 2004 The ACTH response to dexamethasone in PTSD. Am J Psychiatry 161:1397-1403
74. Yehuda R, Boisoneau D, Lowy MT, Giller EL, Jr. 1995 Dose-response changes in plasma cortisol and lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptors following dexamethasone administration in combat veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52:583-593
75. Tyrka AR, Wier L, Price LH, Ross N,
76. Elzinga BM, Roelofs K, Tollenaar MS, Bakvis P, van Pelt J, Spinhoven P 2008 Diminished cortisol responses to psychosocial stress associated with lifetime adverse events a study among healthy young subjects. Psychoneuroendocrinology 33:227-237
77. Emack J, Kostaki A,
78. Gotlib IH, Joormann J, Minor KL, Hallmayer J 2008 HPA axis reactivity: a mechanism underlying the associations among 5-HTTLPR, stress, and depression. Biol Psychiatry 63:847-851
79. Derijk RH, de Kloet ER 2008 Corticosteroid receptor polymorphisms: determinants of vulnerability and resilience. Eur J Pharmacol 583:303-311
80. Abelson JL, Khan S, Liberzon I, Erickson TM, Young EA 2008 Effects of perceived control and cognitive coping on endocrine stress responses to pharmacological activation. Biol Psychiatry 64:701-707
81. Lightman SL 2008 The neuroendocrinology of stress: a never ending story. J Neuroendocrinol 20:880-884
82. Reul JM, de Kloet ER 1985 Two receptor systems for corticosterone in rat brain: microdistribution and differential occupation. Endocrinology 117:2505-2511
83. Dallman MF, Akana SF, Bhatnagar S,
84. Rosmond R, Dallman MF, Bjorntorp P 1998 Stress-related cortisol secretion in men: relationships with abdominal obesity and endocrine, metabolic and hemodynamic abnormalities. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:1853-1859
85. Michaud K, Matheson K, Kelly O, Anisman H 2008 Impact of stressors in a natural context on release of cortisol in healthy adult humans: a meta-analysis. Stress 11:177-197
86. Pecoraro N, Dallman MF, Warne JP,
87. Keller-Wood ME, Shinsako J, Dallman MF 1983 Integral as well as proportional adrenal responses to ACTH. Am J Physiol 245:R53-59
88. Calogero AE, Norton JA, Sheppard BC, Listwak SJ, Cromack DT, Wall R, Jensen RT, Chrousos GP 1992 Pulsatile activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis during major surgery. Metabolism 41:839-845
89. Chrousos GP 2007 Organization and Integration of the Endocrine System. Sleep Med Clin 2:125-145
90. Windle RJ, Wood SA, Kershaw YM, Lightman SL, Ingram CD, Harbuz MS 2001 Increased corticosterone pulse frequency during adjuvant-induced arthritis and its relationship to alterations in stress responsiveness. J Neuroendocrinol 13:905-911
91. Sternberg EM, Young WS, 3rd, Bernardini R, Calogero AE, Chrousos GP, Gold PW, Wilder RL 1989 A central nervous system defect in biosynthesis of corticotropin-releasing hormone is associated with susceptibility to streptococcal cell wall-induced arthritis in Lewis rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 86:4771-4775
92. Windle RJ, Wood SA, Lightman SL, Ingram CD 1998 The pulsatile characteristics of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal activity in female Lewis and Fischer 344 rats and its relationship to differential stress responses. Endocrinology 139:4044-4052
93. Levine S 1967 Maternal and environmental influences on the adrenocortical response to stress in weanling rats. Science 156:258-260
94. Shanks N, Windle RJ, Perks PA, Harbuz MS, Jessop DS, Ingram CD, Lightman SL 2000 Early-life exposure to endotoxin alters hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function and predisposition to inflammation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97:5645-5650
95. Seale JV, Wood SA, Atkinson HC, Lightman SL, Harbuz MS 2005 Organizational role for testosterone and estrogen on adult hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity in the male rat. Endocrinology 146:1973-1982
96. Bethin KE, Vogt SK, Muglia LJ 2000 Interleukin-6 is an essential, corticotropin-releasing hormone-independent stimulator of the adrenal axis during immune system activation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97:9317-9322
97. Mastorakos G, Weber JS, Magiakou MA, Gunn H, Chrousos GP 1994 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation and stimulation of systemic vasopressin secretion by recombinant interleukin-6 in humans: potential implications for the syndrome of inappropriate vasopressin secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79:934-939
98. Besedovsky HO, del Rey A 1992 Immune-neuroendocrine circuits: integrative role of cytokines. Front Neuroendocrinol 13:61-94
99. Pralong FP, Roduit R, Waeber G, Castillo E, Mosimann F, Thorens B, Gaillard RC 1998 Leptin inhibits directly glucocorticoid secretion by normal human and rat adrenal gland. Endocrinology 139:4264-4268
100. Heiman ML, Ahima RS, Craft LS, Schoner B, Stephens TW, Flier JS 1997 Leptin inhibition of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in response to stress. Endocrinology 138:3859-3863
101. Schwartz MW, Seeley RJ 1997 Seminars in
medicine of the