1. Quigley CA, DeBellis A, Marschke KB, et al.: Androgen receptor defects: historical, clinical and molecular perspectives. Endocr Rev 16:271-321, 1995.

2. Foradori CD, Weiser MJ, Handa RJ: Non-genomic actions of androgens. Front Neuroendocrinol 29:169-81, 2008.

3. Michels G, Hoppe UC: Rapid actions of androgens. Front Neuroendocrinol 29:182-98, 2008.

4. Kochakian CD, (ed): Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids. Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1976. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology; vol 43).

5. Nieschlag E, Behre HM, (ed): Testosterone: Action.Deficiency.Substitution. 3rd ed. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004.

6. Hall PF: Testicular steroid synthesis: organization and regulation. In Knobil E, Neill J, (eds): The Physiology of Reproduction. New York, Raven Press: 975-998, 1988. pp 975-998

7. Neaves WB, Johnson L, Porter JC, et al.: Leydig cell numbers, daily sperm production, and serum gonadotropin levels in aging men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 55:756-763, 1984.

8. Labrie F: Adrenal androgens and intracrinology. Semin Reprod Med 22:299-309, 2004.

9. Oesterling JE, Epstein JI, Walsh PC: The inability of adrenal androgens to stimulate the adult human prostate: an autopsy evaluation of men with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and panhypopituitarism. J Urol 136:1030-4, 1986.

10. Young J, Couzinet B, Nahoul K, et al.: Panhypopituitarism as a model to study the metabolism of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in humans. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 82:2578-85, 1997.

11. Gallegos AM, Atshaves BP, Storey SM, et al.: Gene structure, intracellular localization, and functional roles of sterol carrier protein-2. Prog Lipid Res 40:498-563, 2001.

12. Miller WL: Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), a novel mitochondrial cholesterol transporter. Biochim Biophys Acta 1771:663-76, 2007.

13. Papadopoulos V: In search of the function of the peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor. Endocr Res 30:677-84, 2004.

14. Jarow JP, Zirkin BR: The androgen microenvironment of the human testis and hormonal control of spermatogenesis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1061:208-20, 2005.

15. Gray A, Berlin JA, McKinlay JB, et al.: An examination of research design effects on the association of testosterone and male aging: results of a meta-analysis. J Clin Epidemiol 44:671-684, 1991.

16. Orwoll E, Lambert LC, Marshall LM, et al.: Testosterone and estradiol among older men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:1336-44, 2006.

17. Travison TG, Shackelton R, Araujo AB, et al.: The natural history of symptomatic androgen deficiency in men: onset, progression, and spontaneous remission. J Am Geriatr Soc 56:831-9, 2008.

18. Handelsman DJ, Staraj S: Testicular size: the effects of aging, malnutrition and illness. J Androl 6:144-151, 1985.

19. Gray A, Feldman HA, McKinlay JB, et al.: Age, disease, and changing sex hormone levels in middle-aged men: results of the Massachussetts Male Aging Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 73:1016-1025, 1991.

20. Feldman HA, Longcope C, Derby CA, et al.: Age trends in the level of serum testosterone and other hormones in middle-aged men: longitudinal results from the Massachusetts male aging study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:589-98., 2002.

21. Vermeulen A, Desylpere JP, Kaufman JM: Influence of antiopioids on luteinizing hormone pulsatility in aging men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 68:68-72, 1989.

22. Deslypere JP, Kaufman JM, Vermeulen T, et al.: Influence of age on pulsatile luteinizing hormone release and responsiveness of the gonadotrophs to sex hormone feedback in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 64:68-73, 1987.

23. Veldhuis JD, Urban RJ, Lizarralde G, et al.: Attenuation of luteinizing hormone secretory burst amplitude as a proximate basis for the hypoandrogenism of healthy aging men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75:707-713, 1992.

24. Liu PY, Pincus SM, Takahashi PY, et al.: Aging attenuates both the regularity and joint synchrony of LH and testosterone secretion in normal men: analyses via a model of graded GnRH receptor blockade. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 290:E34-E41, 2006.

25. Mulligan T, Iranmanesh A, Gheorghiu S, et al.: Amplified nocturnal luteinizing hormone (LH) secretory burst frequency with selective attenuation of pulsatile (but not basal) testosterone secretion in healthy aged men: possible Leydig cell desensitization to endogenous LH signaling--a clinical research center study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:3025-31, 1995.

26. Mulligan T, Iranmanesh A, Kerzner R, et al.: Two-week pulsatile gonadotropin releasing hormone infusion unmasks dual (hypothalamic and Leydig cell) defects in the healthy aging male gonadotropic axis. Eur J Endocrinol 141:257-66, 1999.

27. Liu PY, Takahashi PY, Roebuck PD, et al.: Aging in healthy men impairs recombinant human luteinizing hormone (LH)-stimulated testosterone secretion monitored under a two-day intravenous pulsatile LH clamp. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:5544-50, 2005.

28. Regadera J, Nistal M, Paniagua R: Testis, epididymis, and spermatic cord in elderly men: correlation of angiographic and histologic studies with systemic arteriosclerosis. Arch Pathol Lab Med 109:663-7, 1985.

29. Veldhuis JD, Keenan DM, Iranmanesh A: Mechanisms of ensemble failure of the male gonadal axis in aging. J Endocrinol Invest 28:8-13, 2005.

30. Prostate Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group: Maximum androgen blockade in advanced prostate cancer: an overview of the randomised trials. Lancet 355:1491-8, 2000.

31. Arlt W, Justl HG, Callies F, et al.: Oral dehydroepiandrosterone for adrenal androgen replacement: pharmacokinetics and peripheral conversion to androgens and estrogens in young healthy females after dexamethasone suppression. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:1928-34, 1998.

32. Arlt W, Callies F, Koehler I, et al.: Dehydroepiandrosterone supplementation in healthy men with an age-related decline of dehydroepiandrosterone secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:4686-92, 2001.

33. Nair KS, Rizza RA, O'Brien P, et al.: DHEA in elderly women and DHEA or testosterone in elderly men. N Engl J Med 355:1647-59, 2006.

34. Baird DT, Horton R, Longcope C, et al.: Steroid dynamics under steady-state conditions. Recent Prog Horm Res 25:611-64, 1969.

35. Gurpide E: Tracer Methods in Hormone Research. New York, Springer, 1975.

36. Setchell BP: The Mammalian Testis. London, Paul Elek, 1978.

37. Southren AL, Gordon GG, Tochimoto S: Further studies of factors affecting metabolic clearance rate of testosterone in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 28:1105-1112, 1968.

38. Santner S, Albertson B, Zhang GY, et al.: Comparative rates of androgen production and metabolism in Caucasian and Chinese subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:2104-9, 1998.

39. Wang C, Catlin DH, Starcevic B, et al.: Testosterone metabolic clearance and production rates determined by stable isotope dilution/tandem mass spectrometry in normal men: influence of ethnicity and age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:2936-41, 2004.

40. Ishimaru T, Edmiston WA, Pages L, et al.: Splanchnic extraction and conversion of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone in man. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 46:528-33, 1978.

41. Longcope C, Sato K, McKay C, et al.: Aromatization by splanchnic tissue in men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 58:1089-93, 1984.

42. Diver MJ, Imtiaz KE, Ahmad AM, et al.: Diurnal rhythms of serum total, free and bioavailable testosterone and of SHBG in middle-aged men compared with those in young men. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 58:710-7, 2003.

43. Bremner WJ, Vitiello MV, Prinz PN: Loss of circadian rhythmicity in blood testosterone levels with aging in normal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 56:1278-1281, 1983.

44. Keenan DM, Takahashi PY, Liu PY, et al.: An ensemble model of the male gonadal axis: illustrative application in aging men. Endocrinology 147:2817-28, 2006.

45. Petra P, Stanczyk FZ, Namkung PC, et al.: Direct effect of sex-steroid binding protein (SBP) of plasma on the metabolic clearance rate of testosterone in the rhesus macaque. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 22:739-746, 1985.

46. Dunn JF, Nisula BC, Rodbard D: Transport of steroid hormones: binding of 21 endogenous steroids to both testosterone-binding globulin and corticosteroid-binding globulin in human plasma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 53:58-68, 1981.

47. Fournier T, Medjoubi NN, Porquet D: Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein. Biochim Biophys Acta 1482:157-71, 2000.

48. Luppa PB, Thaler M, Schulte-Frohlinde E, et al.: Unchanged androgen-binding properties of sex hormone-binding globulin in male patients with liver cirrhosis

Effects of endurance exercise on free testosterone concentration and the binding affinity of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG). Clin Chem Lab Med 44:967-73, 2006.

49. Selva DM, Hammond GL: Human sex hormone-binding globulin is expressed in testicular germ cells and not in sertoli cells. Horm Metab Res 38:230-5, 2006.

50. Diaz L, Queipo G, Carino C, et al.: Biologically active steroid and thyroid hormones stimulate secretion of sex hormone-binding globulin by human term placenta in culture. Arch Med Res 28:29-36, 1997.

51. von Schoultz B, Carlstrom K: On the regulation of sex-hormone-binding globulin. A challenge of an old dogma and outlines of an alternative mechanism. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 32:327-334, 1989.

52. Kahn SM, Hryb DJ, Nakhla AM, et al.: Sex hormone-binding globulin is synthesized in target cells. J Endocrinol 175:113-20, 2002.

53. Pardridge WM: Plasma protein-mediated transport of steroid and thyroid hormones. Am J Physiol 252:E157-64, 1987.

54. Mendel CM: The free hormone hypothesis: a physiologically based mathematical model. Endocr Rev 10:232-274, 1989.

55. Ekins R: Measurement of free hormones in blood. Endocr Rev 11:5-46, 1990.

56. Queipo G, Deas M, Arranz C, et al.: Sex hormone-binding globulin stimulates chorionic gonadotrophin secretion from human cytotrophoblasts in culture. Hum Reprod 13:1368-73, 1998.

57. Rosner W, Hryb DJ, Khan MS, et al.: Sex hormone-binding globulin mediates steroid hormone signal transduction at the plasma membrane. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 69:481-5, 1999.

58. Rosner W, Hryb DJ, Khan MS, et al.: Androgen and estrogen signaling at the cell membrane via G-proteins and cyclic adenosine monophosphate. Steroids 64:100-6, 1999.

59. Kahn SM, Li YH, Hryb DJ, et al.: Sex hormone-binding globulin influences gene expression of LNCaP and MCF-7 cells in response to androgen and estrogen treatment. Adv Exp Med Biol 617:557-64, 2008.

60. Hamada A, Sissung T, Price DK, et al.: Effect of SLCO1B3 haplotype on testosterone transport and clinical outcome in caucasian patients with androgen-independent prostatic cancer. Clin Cancer Res 14:3312-8, 2008.

61. Rosner W, Auchus RJ, Azziz R, et al.: Position statement: Utility, limitations, and pitfalls in measuring testosterone: an Endocrine Society position statement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:405-13, 2007.

62. Herold DA, Fitzgerald RL: Immunoassays for testosterone in women: better than a guess? Clin Chem 49:1250-1, 2003.

63. Sikaris K, McLachlan RI, Kazlauskas R, et al.: Reproductive hormone reference intervals for healthy fertile young men: evaluation of automated platform assays. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:5928-36., 2005.

64. Umstot ES, Baxter JE, Andersen RN: A theoretically sound and practicable equilibrium dialysis method for measuring percentage of free testosterone. J Steroid Biochem 22:639-48, 1985.

65. Swinkels LM, Ross HA, Benraad TJ: A symmetric dialysis method for the determination of free testosterone in human plasma. Clin Chim Acta 165:341-9, 1987.

66. Hammond GL, Nisker JA, Jones LA, et al.: Estimation of the percentage of free steroid in undiluted serum by centrifugal ultrafiltration-dialysis. J Biol Chem 255:5023-6, 1980.

67. Vlahos I, MacMahon W, Sgoutas D, et al.: An improved ultrafiltration method for determining free testosterone in serum. Clinical Chemistry 28:2286-91, 1982.

68. Sodergard R, Backstrom T, Shanbhag V, et al.: Calculation of free and bound fractions of testosterone and estradiol-17 beta to human plasma proteins at body temperature. J Steroid Biochem 16:801-10, 1982.

69. Rosner W: An extraordinarily inaccurate assay for free testosterone is still with us. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:2903., 2001.

70. Fritz KS, McKean AJ, Nelson JC, et al.: Analog-based free testosterone test results linked to total testosterone concentrations, not free testosterone concentrations. Clin Chem 54:512-6, 2008.

71. Kapoor P, Luttrell BM, Williams D: The free androgen index is not valid for adult males. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 45:325-6, 1993.

72. Ly LP, Handelsman DJ: Empirical estimation of free testosterone from testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin immunoassays. Eur J Endocrinol 152:471-8, 2005.

73. Van Eenoo P, Delbeke FT: Metabolism and excretion of anabolic steroids in doping control--new steroids and new insights. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 101:161-78, 2006.

74. Kumar N, Crozat A, Li F, et al.: 7alpha-methyl-19-nortestosterone, a synthetic androgen with high potency: structure-activity comparisons with other androgens. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 71:213-22, 1999.

75. Deslypere JP, Young M, Wilson JD, et al.: Testosterone and 5 alpha-dihydrotestosterone interact differently with the androgen receptor to enhance transcription of the MMTV-CAT reporter gene. Mol Cell Endocrinol 88:15-22, 1992.

76. Zhou ZX, Lane MV, Kemppainen JA, et al.: Specificity of ligand-dependent androgen receptor stabilization: receptor domain interactions influence ligand dissociation and receptor stability. Mol Endocrinol 9:208-18, 1995.

77. McRobb L, Handelsman D, Kazlauskas R, et al.: Structure-activity relationships of synthetic progestins in a yeast based in vitro androgen bioassay. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 110:39-47, 2008.

78. Russell DW, Wilson JD: Steroid 5 alpha-reductase: two genes/two enzymes. Annu Rev Biochem 63:25-61, 1994.

79. Thigpen AE, Davis DL, Milatovich A, et al.: Molecular genetics of steroid 5a-reductase 2 deficiency. Journal of Clinical Investigations 90:799-809, 1992.

80. Cai LQ, Fratiani CM, Gautier T, et al.: Dihydrotestosterone regulation of semen in males pseudohermaphrodites with 5-a reductase deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79:409-14, 1994.

81. Sobel V, Schwartz B, Zhu YS, et al.: Bone mineral density in the complete androgen insensitivity and 5alpha-reductase-2 deficiency syndromes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:3017-23, 2006.

82. Imperato-McGinley J, Peterson RE, Gautier T, et al.: Androgens and the evolution of male gender identity among male pseudohemaphrodites with 5-a reductase deficiency. N Engl J Med 300:1233-1237, 1979.

83. Imperato-McGinley J, Gautier T, Zirinsky K, et al.: Prostate visualization studies in males homozygous and heterozygous for 5-a reductase deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75:1022-6, 1992.

84. Imperato-McGinley J, Zhu YS: Androgens and male physiology the syndrome of 5alpha-reductase-2 deficiency. Mol Cell Endocrinol 198:51-9, 2002.

85. Steers WD: 5alpha-reductase activity in the prostate. Urology 58:17-24; discussion 24., 2001.

86. Frick J, Aulitzky W: Physiology of the prostate. Infection 19 Suppl 3:S115-8, 1991.

87. Gisleskog PO, Hermann D, Hammarlund-Udenaes M, et al.: A model for the turnover of dihydrotestosterone in the presence of the irreversible 5 alpha-reductase inhibitors GI198745 and finasteride. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 64:636-647, 1998.

88. Miller LR, Partin AW, Chan DW, et al.: Influence of radical prostatectomy on serum hormone levels. J Urol 160:449-53, 1998.

89. Toorians AW, Kelleher S, Gooren LJ, et al.: Estimating the contribution of the prostate to blood dihydrotestosterone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:5207-11, 2003.

90. Zhu YS, Katz MD, Imperato-McGinley J: Natural potent androgens: lessons from human genetic models. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 12:83-113, 1998.

91. Thompson IM, Goodman PJ, Tangen CM, et al.: The influence of finasteride on the development of prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 349:215-24, 2003.

92. Lucia MS, Epstein JI, Goodman PJ, et al.: Finasteride and high-grade prostate cancer in the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 99:1375-83, 2007.

93. Andriole G, Bostwick D, Brawley O, et al.: Chemoprevention of prostate cancer in men at high risk: rationale and design of the reduction by dutasteride of prostate cancer events (REDUCE) trial. J Urol 172:1314-7, 2004.

94. Simpson ER, Zhao Y, Agarwal VR, et al.: Aromatase expression in health and disease. Recent Prog Horm Res 52:185-213; discussion 213-4, 1997.

95. Bulun SE, Takayama K, Suzuki T, et al.: Organization of the human aromatase p450 (CYP19) gene. Semin Reprod Med 22:5-9, 2004.

96. Naftolin F: Brain aromatization of androgens. J Reprod Med 39:257-61, 1994.

97. Roselli CF: Brain aromatase: roles in reproduction and neuroprotection. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 106:143-50, 2007.

98. Jones ME, Boon WC, Proietto J, et al.: Of mice and men: the evolving phenotype of aromatase deficiency. Trends Endocrinol Metab 17:55-64, 2006.

99. Lubahn DB, Moyer JS, Golding TS, et al.: Alteration of reproductive function but not prenatal sexual development after insertional disruption of the mouse estrogen receptor gene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 90:11162-6, 1993.

100. Couse JE, Mahato D, Eddy EM, et al.: Molecular mechanism of estrogen action in the male: insights from the estrogen receptor null mice. Reprod Fertil Dev 13:211-9, 2001.

101. Gennari L, Nuti R, Bilezikian JP: Aromatase activity and bone homeostasis in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:5898-907, 2004.

102. Vanderschueren D, Vandenput L, Boonen S, et al.: Androgens and bone. Endocr Rev 25:389-425, 2004.

103. Vandenput L, Swinnen JV, Boonen S, et al.: Role of the androgen receptor in skeletal homeostasis: the androgen-resistant testicular feminized male mouse model. J Bone Miner Res 19:1462-70, 2004.

104. Chesnut CH, 3rd, Ivey JL, Gruber HE, et al.: Stanozolol in postmenopausal osteoporosis: therapeutic efficacy and possible mechanisms of action. Metabolism 32:571-80, 1983.

105. Need AG, Nordin BEC, Chatterton BE: Double-blind placebo-controlled trial of treatment of osteoporosis with the anabolic steroid nandrolone decanoate. Osteoporos Int 3 Suppl 1:S218-22, 1993.

106. Venken K, De Gendt K, Boonen S, et al.: Relative impact of androgen and estrogen receptor activation in the effects of androgens on trabecular and cortical bone in growing male mice: a study in the androgen receptor knockout mouse model. J Bone Miner Res 21:576-85, 2006.

107. Callewaert F, Venken K, Ophoff J, et al.: Differential regulation of bone and body composition in male mice with combined inactivation of androgen and estrogen receptor-{alpha}. FASEB J 2008.

108. Zuloaga DG, Puts DA, Jordan CL, et al.: The role of androgen receptors in the masculinization of brain and behavior: what we've learned from the testicular feminization mutation. Horm Behav 53:613-26, 2008.

109. Vanderschueren D, Gaytant J, Boonen S, et al.: Androgens and bone. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 15:250-4, 2008.

110. Zhou SF: Drugs behave as substrates, inhibitors and inducers of human cytochrome P450 3A4. Curr Drug Metab 9:310-22, 2008.

111. Chouinard S, Yueh MF, Tukey RH, et al.: Inactivation by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase enzymes: the end of androgen signaling. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 109:247-53, 2008.

112. Jakobsson J, Ekstrom L, Inotsume N, et al.: Large differences in testosterone excretion in Korean and Swedish men are strongly associated with a UDP-glucuronosyl transferase 2B17 polymorphism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:687-93, 2006.

113. Schulze JJ, Lundmark J, Garle M, et al.: Doping test results dependent on genotype of uridine diphospho-glucuronosyl transferase 2B17, the major enzyme for testosterone glucuronidation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:2500-6, 2008.

114. Johnsen SG, Bennet EP, Jensen VG: Therapeutic effectiveness of oral testosterone. Lancet ii:1473-1475, 1974.

115. Frey H, Aakvag A, Saanum D, et al.: Bioavailability of testosterone in males. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 16:345-349, 1979.

116. Parkes AS: Effective absorption of hormones. Br Med J 371-373, 1938.

117. Lisser H, Escamilla RF, Curtis LE: Testosterone therapy of male eunuchoids. III Sublingual administration of testosterone compounds. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology 2:351-60, 1942.

118. Korbonits M, Slawik M, Cullen D, et al.: A comparison of a novel testosterone bioadhesive buccal system, striant, with a testosterone adhesive patch in hypogonadal males. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:2039-43, 2004.

119. Wang C, Eyre DR, Clark R, et al.: Sublingual testosterone replacement improves muscle mass and strength, decreases bone resorption, and increases bone formation markers in hypogonadal men--a clinical research center study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 81:3654-62, 1996.

120. Shackleford DM, Faassen WA, Houwing N, et al.: Contribution of lymphatically transported testosterone undecanoate to the systemic exposure of testosterone after oral administration of two andriol formulations in conscious lymph duct-cannulated dogs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 306:925-33, 2003.

121. Foss GL: Clinical administration of androgens. Lancet i:502-504, 1939.

122. Bousfield GR, Butnev VY, Gotschall RR, et al.: Structural features of mammalian gonadotropins. Mol Cell Endocrinol 125:3-19, 1996.

123. Gromoll J, Eiholzer U, Nieschlag E, et al.: Male hypogonadism caused by homozygous deletion of exon 10 of the luteinizing hormone (LH) receptor: differential action of human chorionic gonadotropin and LH. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:2281-6, 2000.

124. O'Shaughnessy PJ, Baker P, Sohnius U, et al.: Fetal development of Leydig cell activity in the mouse is independent of pituitary gonadotroph function. Endocrinology 139:1141-6, 1998.

125. Sisk CL, Foster DL: The neural basis of puberty and adolescence. Nat Neurosci 7:1040-7, 2004.

126. Veldhuis JD: Neuroendocrine facets of human puberty. Neurobiol Aging 24 Suppl 1:S93-S119; discussion S121-2, 2003.

127. Terasawa E, Fernandez DL: Neurobiological mechanisms of the onset of puberty in primates. Endocr Rev 22:111-51, 2001.

128. de Roux N, Genin E, Carel JC, et al.: Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism due to loss of function of the KiSS1-derived peptide receptor GPR54. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100:10972-6, 2003.

129. Seminara SB, Messager S, Chatzidaki EE, et al.: The GPR54 gene as a regulator of puberty. N Engl J Med 349:1614-27, 2003.

130. Wu FC, Borrow SM, Nicol K, et al.: Ontogeny of pulsatile gonadotrophin secretion and pituitary responsiveness in male puberty in man: a mixed longitudinal and cross-sectional study. J Endocrinol 123:347-59, 1989.

131. Silventoinen K, Haukka J, Dunkel L, et al.: Genetics of pubertal timing and its associations with relative weight in childhood and adult height: the Swedish Young Male Twins Study. Pediatrics 121:e885-91, 2008.

132. Pedersen-White JR, Chorich LP, Bick DP, et al.: The prevalence of intragenic deletions in patients with idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and Kallmann syndrome. Mol Hum Reprod 14:367-70, 2008.

133. Delemarre-van de Waal HA: Secular trend of timing of puberty. Endocr Dev 8:1-14, 2005.

134. Ong KK, Ahmed ML, Dunger DB: Lessons from large population studies on timing and tempo of puberty (secular trends and relation to body size): the European trend. Mol Cell Endocrinol 254-255:8-12, 2006.

135. Parent AS, Teilmann G, Juul A, et al.: The timing of normal puberty and the age limits of sexual precocity: variations around the world, secular trends, and changes after migration. Endocr Rev 24:668-93, 2003.

136. Gluckman PD, Hanson MA: Changing times: the evolution of puberty. Mol Cell Endocrinol 254-255:26-31, 2006.

137. Veldhuis JD, Carlson ML, Johnson ML: The pituitary gland secretes in bursts: appraising the nature of glandular secretory impulses by simultaneous multiple-parameter deconvolution of plasma hormone concentrations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 84:7686-7690, 1988.

138. Chin WW, Boime I, (ed): Glycoprotein Hormones: Structure, Synthesis and Biologic Function. Norwell, Serono Symposia, USA, 1990.

139. Boime I, Ben-Menahem D: Glycoprotein hormone structure-function and analog design. Recent Prog Horm Res 54:271-88; discussion 288-9, 1999.

140. Ascoli M, Fanelli F, Segaloff DL: The lutropin/choriogonadotropin receptor, a 2002 perspective. Endocr Rev 23:141-74, 2002.

141. Rosa C, Amr S, Birken S, et al.: Effect of desialylation of human chorionic gonadotropin on its metabolic clearance rate in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 59:1215-9, 1984.

142. Muyan M, Furuhashi M, Sugahara T, et al.: The carboxy-terminal region of the beta-subunits of luteinizing hormone and chorionic gonadotropin differentially influence secretion and assembly of the heterodimers. Mol Endocrinol 10:1678-87, 1996.

143. Bouloux PM, Handelsman DJ, Jockenhovel F, et al.: First human exposure to FSH-CTP in hypogonadotrophic hypogonadal males. Hum Reprod 16:1592-7., 2001.

144. Joshi L, Murata Y, Wondisford FE, et al.: Recombinant thyrotropin containing a beta-subunit chimera with the human chorionic gonadotropin-beta carboxy-terminus is biologically active, with a prolonged plasma half-life: role of carbohydrate in bioactivity and metabolic clearance. Endocrinology 136:3839-48, 1995.

145. Fares F, Ganem S, Hajouj T, et al.: Development of a long-acting erythropoietin by fusing the carboxyl-terminal peptide of human chorionic gonadotropin beta-subunit to the coding sequence of human erythropoietin. Endocrinology 148:5081-7, 2007.

146. Saunders PT: Germ cell-somatic cell interactions during spermatogenesis. Reprod Suppl 61:91-101, 2003.

147. Rudolfsson SH, Wikstrom P, Jonsson A, et al.: Hormonal regulation and functional role of vascular endothelial growth factor a in the rat testis. Biol Reprod 70:340-7, 2004.

148. Schnorr JA, Bray MJ, Veldhuis JD: Aromatization mediates testosterone's short-term feedback restraint of 24-hour endogenously driven and acute exogenous gonadotropin-releasing hormone-stimulated luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone secretion in young men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:2600-6, 2001.

149. Pitteloud N, Dwyer AA, DeCruz S, et al.: Inhibition of luteinizing hormone secretion by testosterone in men requires aromatization for its pituitary but not its hypothalamic effects: evidence from the tandem study of normal and gonadotropin-releasing hormone-deficient men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:784-91, 2008.

150. Wilson JD: The role of 5alpha-reduction in steroid hormone physiology. Reprod Fertil Dev 13:673-8, 2001.

151. Simpson ER: Aromatase: biologic relevance of tissue-specific expression. Semin Reprod Med 22:11-23, 2004.

152. Gronemeyer H, Gustafsson JA, Laudet V: Principles for modulation of the nuclear receptor superfamily. Nat Rev Drug Discov 3:950-64, 2004.

153. Shi Y: Orphan nuclear receptors in drug discovery. Drug Discov Today 12:440-5, 2007.

154. Adachi M, Takayanagi R, Tomura A, et al.: Androgen-insensitivity syndrome as a possible coactivator disease. N Engl J Med 343:856-62, 2000.

155. McEwan IJ, Lavery D, Fischer K, et al.: Natural disordered sequences in the amino terminal domain of nuclear receptors: lessons from the androgen and glucocorticoid receptors. Nucl Recept Signal 5:e001, 2007.

156. Rajender S, Singh L, Thangaraj K: Phenotypic heterogeneity of mutations in androgen receptor gene. Asian J Androl 9:147-79, 2007.

157. Zitzmann M, Nieschlag E: The CAG repeat polymorphism within the androgen receptor gene and maleness. Int J Androl 26:76-83., 2003.

158. Zitzmann M, Depenbusch M, Gromoll J, et al.: Prostate volume and growth in testosterone-substituted hypogonadal men are dependent on the CAG repeat polymorphism of the androgen receptor gene: a longitudinal pharmacogenetic study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:2049-54, 2003.

159. Zitzmann M, Nieschlag E: Androgen receptor gene CAG repeat length and body mass index modulate the safety of long-term intramuscular testosterone undecanoate therapy in hypogonadal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:3844-53, 2007.

160. Zeegers MP, Kiemeney LA, Nieder AM, et al.: How strong is the association between CAG and GGN repeat length polymorphisms in the androgen receptor gene and prostate cancer risk? Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 13:1765-71, 2004.

161. Davis-Dao CA, Tuazon ED, Sokol RZ, et al.: Male infertility and variation in CAG repeat length in the androgen receptor gene: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:4319-26, 2007.

162. Ioannidis JP, Ntzani EE, Trikalinos TA, et al.: Replication validity of genetic association studies. Nat Genet 29:306-9, 2001.

163. Palazzolo I, Gliozzi A, Rusmini P, et al.: The role of the polyglutamine tract in androgen receptor. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 108:245-53, 2008.

164. Thomas PS, Jr., Fraley GS, Damian V, et al.: Loss of endogenous androgen receptor protein accelerates motor neuron degeneration and accentuates androgen insensitivity in a mouse model of X-linked spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy. Hum Mol Genet 15:2225-38, 2006.

165. Atsuta N, Watanabe H, Ito M, et al.: Natural history of spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA): a study of 223 Japanese patients. Brain 129:1446-55, 2006.

166. Ross CA, Poirier MA: Opinion: What is the role of protein aggregation in neurodegeneration? Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 6:891-8, 2005.

167. Adachi H, Waza M, Katsuno M, et al.: Pathogenesis and molecular targeted therapy of spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 33:135-51, 2007.

168. Prescott J, Coetzee GA: Molecular chaperones throughout the life cycle of the androgen receptor. Cancer Lett 231:12-9, 2006.

169. Heinlein CA, Chang C: Androgen receptor (AR) coregulators: an overview. Endocr Rev 23:175-200, 2002.

170. Smith CL, O'Malley BW: Coregulator function: a key to understanding tissue specificity of selective receptor modulators. Endocr Rev 25:45-71, 2004.

171. Gottlieb B, Beitel LK, Wu JH, et al.: The androgen receptor gene mutations database (ARDB): 2004 update. Hum Mutat 23:527-533, 2004.

172. Sarpel U, Palmer SK, Dolgin SE: The incidence of complete androgen insensitivity in girls with inguinal hernias and assessment of screening by vaginal length measurement. J Pediatr Surg 40:133-6; discussion 136-7, 2005.

173. Hiort O, Holterhus PM, Horter T, et al.: Significance of mutations in the androgen receptor gene in males with idiopathic infertility. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:2810-5, 2000.

174. Belgorosky A, Rivarola MA: Sex hormone binding globulin response to testosterone. An androgen sensitivity test. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 109:130-8, 1985.

175. Sinnecker GH, Hiort O, Nitsche EM, et al.: Functional assessment and clinical classification of androgen sensitivity in patients with mutations of the androgen receptor gene. German Collaborative Intersex Study Group. Eur J Pediatr 156:7-14, 1997.

176. Cheikhelard A, Morel Y, Thibaud E, et al.: Long-term followup and comparison between genotype and phenotype in 29 cases of complete androgen insensitivity syndrome. J Urol 180:1496-501, 2008.

177. Marcus R, Leary D, Schneider DL, et al.: The contribution of testosterone to skeletal development and maintenance: lessons from the androgen insensitivity syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:1032-7, 2000.

178. Danilovic DL, Correa PH, Costa EM, et al.: Height and bone mineral density in androgen insensitivity syndrome with mutations in the androgen receptor gene. Osteoporos Int 18:369-74, 2007.

179. Han TS, Goswami D, Trikudanathan S, et al.: Comparison of bone mineral density and body proportions between women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome and women with gonadal dysgenesis. Eur J Endocrinol 159:179-85, 2008.

180. Wisniewski AB, Migeon CJ, Meyer-Bahlburg HF, et al.: Complete androgen insensitivity syndrome: long-term medical, surgical, and psychosexual outcome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:2664-9, 2000.

181. Hines M, Ahmed SF, Hughes IA: Psychological outcomes and gender-related development in complete androgen insensitivity syndrome. Arch Sex Behav 32:93-101, 2003.

182. Minto CL, Liao KL, Conway GS, et al.: Sexual function in women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome. Fertil Steril 80:157-64, 2003.

183. Brinkmann L, Schuetzmann K, Richter-Appelt H: Gender assignment and medical history of individuals with different forms of intersexuality: evaluation of medical records and the patients' perspective. J Sex Med 4:964-80, 2007.

184. Ahmed SF, Cheng A, Dovey L, et al.: Phenotypic features, androgen receptor binding, and mutational analysis in 278 clinical cases reported as androgen insensitivity syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:658-65, 2000.

185. Deeb A, Mason C, Lee YS, et al.: Correlation between genotype, phenotype and sex of rearing in 111 patients with partial androgen insensitivity syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 63:56-62, 2005.

186. Migeon CJ, Wisniewski AB, Gearhart JP, et al.: Ambiguous genitalia with perineoscrotal hypospadias in 46,XY individuals: long-term medical, surgical, and psychosexual outcome. Pediatrics 110:e31, 2002.

187. Rodien P, Mebarki F, Mowszowicz I, et al.: Different phenotypes in a family with androgen insensitivity caused by the same M780I point mutation in the androgen receptor gene. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:2994-8, 1996.

188. Boehmer AL, Brinkmann O, Bruggenwirth H, et al.: Genotype versus phenotype in families with androgen insensitivity syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:4151-60, 2001.

189. Kohler B, Lumbroso S, Leger J, et al.: Androgen insensitivity syndrome: somatic mosaicism of the androgen receptor in seven families and consequences for sex assignment and genetic counseling. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:106-11, 2005.

190. Boehmer AL, Brinkmann AO, Nijman RM, et al.: Phenotypic variation in a family with partial androgen insensitivity syndrome explained by differences in 5alpha dihydrotestosterone availability. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:1240-6, 2001.

191. MacLean HE, Favaloro JM, Warne GL, et al.: Double-strand DNA break repair with replication slippage on two strands: a novel mechanism of deletion formation. Hum Mutat 27:483-9, 2006.

192. Rogowski W: Genetic screening by DNA technology: a systematic review of health economic evidence. Int J Technol Assess Health Care 22:327-37, 2006.

193. Hiort O, Sinnecker GH, Holterhus PM, et al.: Inherited and de novo androgen receptor gene mutations: investigation of single-case families. J Pediatr 132:939-43, 1998.

194. Yeh SH, Chiu CM, Chen CL, et al.: Somatic mutations at the trinucleotide repeats of androgen receptor gene in male hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Cancer 120:1610-7, 2007.

195. Hiort O, Naber SP, Lehners A, et al.: The role of androgen receptor gene mutations in male breast carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:3404-7, 1996.

196. Paul R, Breul J: Antiandrogen withdrawal syndrome associated with prostate cancer therapies: incidence and clinical significance. Drug Saf 23:381-90, 2000.

197. Suzuki H, Okihara K, Miyake H, et al.: Alternative nonsteroidal antiandrogen therapy for advanced prostate cancer that relapsed after initial maximum androgen blockade. J Urol 180:921-7, 2008.

198. Hara T, Miyazaki J, Araki H, et al.: Novel mutations of androgen receptor: a possible mechanism of bicalutamide withdrawal syndrome. Cancer Res 63:149-53, 2003.

199. Miyamoto H, Rahman MM, Chang C: Molecular basis for the antiandrogen withdrawal syndrome. J Cell Biochem 91:3-12, 2004.

200. Meikle AW: The interrelationships between thyroid dysfunction and hypogonadism in men and boys. Thyroid 14 Suppl 1:S17-25, 2004.

201. Payne KL, Loidl NM, Lim CF, et al.: Modulation of T3-induced sex hormone-binding globulin secretion by human hepatoblastoma cells. Eur J Endocrinol 137:415-20, 1997.

202. Isojarvi J: Disorders of reproduction in patients with epilepsy: antiepileptic drug related mechanisms. Seizure 17:111-9, 2008.

203. Wheeler MJ, Toone BK, ADannatt, et al.: Metabolic clearance rate of testosterone in male epileptic patients on anti-convulsant therapy. J Endocrinol 129:465-468, 1991.

204. Death AK, McGrath KC, Handelsman DJ: Valproate is an anti-androgen and anti-progestin. Steroids 70:946-53, 2005.

205. Green JRB, Goble HL, Edwards CRW, et al.: Reversible insensitivity to androgens in men with untreated gluten enteropathy. Lancet i:280-282, 1977.

206. Farthing MJR, Rees LH, Edwards CRW, et al.: Male gonadal dysfunction in coeliac disease: 2. Sex hormones. Gut 24:127-135, 1983.

207. Frydman M, Kauschansky A, Bonne-Tamir B, et al.: Assessment of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular function in male patients with Wilson's disease. J Androl 12:180-4, 1991.

208. Herrick AL, McColl KE, Wallace AM, et al.: Elevation of hormone-binding globulins in acute intermittent porphyria. Clin Chim Acta 187:141-8, 1990.

209. Iturriaga H, Lioi X, Valladares L: Sex hormone-binding globulin in non-cirrhotic alcoholic patients during early withdrawal and after longer abstinence. Alcohol Alcohol 34:903-9, 1999.

210. Handelsman DJ, Strasser S, McDonald JA, et al.: Hypothalamic-pituitary testicular function in end-stage non-alcoholic liver disease before and after liver transplantation. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 43:331-7, 1995.

211. Liu PY, Death AK, Handelsman DJ: Androgens and cardiovascular disease. Endocr Rev 24:313-40, 2003.

212. Bojesen A, Juul S, Birkebaek N, et al.: Increased mortality in Klinefelter syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:3830-4, 2004.

213. Liu PY, Handelsman DJ: Androgen therapy in non-gonadal disease. In Nieschlag E, Behre HM, (eds): Testosterone: Action, Deficiency and Substitution. 3rd ed. Berlin, Springer-Verlag: 445-95, 2004. pp 445-95

214. Zuraw BL: Clinical practice. Hereditary angioedema. N Engl J Med 359:1027-36, 2008.

215. Handelsman DJ: Update in andrology. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:4505-11, 2007.

216. Nieschlag E, Nieschlag S, Behre HM: Lifespan and testosterone. Nature 366:215, 1993.

217. Bojesen A, Juul S, Gravholt CH: Prenatal and postnatal prevalence of Klinefelter syndrome: a national registry study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:622-6, 2003.

218. Kelleher S, Conway AJ, Handelsman DJ: Blood testosterone threshold for androgen deficiency symptoms. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:3813-7, 2004.

219. Schaison G, Young J, Pholsena M, et al.: Failure of combined follicle-stimulating hormone-testosterone administration to initiate and/or maintain spermatogenesis in men with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 77:1545-9, 1993.

220. Pitteloud N, Hayes FJ, Dwyer A, et al.: Predictors of outcome of long-term GnRH therapy in men with idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:4128-36, 2002.

221. Wang C, Tso SC, Todd D: Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in severe beta-thalassemia: effect of chelation and pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 68:511-516, 1989.

222. Buchter D, Behre HM, Kliesch S, et al.: Pulsatile GnRH or human chorionic gonadotropin/human menopausal gonadotropin as effective treatment for men with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: a review of 42 cases. European Journal of Endocrinology 139:298-303, 1998.

223. Liu PY, Gebski VJ, Turner L, et al.: Predicting pregnancy and spermatogenesis by survival analysis during gonadotropin treatment of gonadotropin deficient infertile men. Hum Reprod 17:625-33, 2002.

224. Burger HG, de Kretser DM, Hudson B, et al.: Effects of preceeding androgen therapy on testicular response to human pituitary gonadotropin in hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Fertil Steril 35:64-68, 1981.

225. Barrio R, de Luis D, Alonso M, et al.: Induction of puberty with human chorionic gonadotropin and follicle-stimulating hormone in adolescent males with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Fertil Steril 71:244-8, 1999.

226. Belanger A, Candas B, Dupont A, et al.: Changes in serum concentrations of conjugated and unconjugated steroids in 40- to 80-year-old men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79:1086-90, 1994.

227. Travison TG, Araujo AB, Kupelian V, et al.: The relative contributions of aging, health, and lifestyle factors to serum testosterone decline in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:549-55, 2007.

228. Andersson AM, Jorgensen N, Frydelund-Larsen L, et al.: Impaired Leydig cell function in infertile men: a study of 357 idiopathic infertile men and 318 proven fertile controls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:3161-7, 2004.

229. Howell SJ, Radford JA, Adams JE, et al.: The impact of mild Leydig cell dysfunction following cytotoxic chemotherapy on bone mineral density (BMD) and body composition. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 52:609-16, 2000.

230. Howell SJ, Radford JA, Smets EM, et al.: Fatigue, sexual function and mood following treatment for haematological malignancy: the impact of mild Leydig cell dysfunction. Br J Cancer 82:789-93, 2000.

231. Gerl A, Muhlbayer D, Hansmann G, et al.: The impact of chemotherapy on Leydig cell function in long term survivors of germ cell tumors. Cancer 91:1297-303, 2001.

232. Somali M, Mpatakoias V, Avramides A, et al.: Function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in long-term survivors of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for hematological diseases. Gynecol Endocrinol 21:18-26, 2005.

233. Howell SJ, Radford JA, Adams JE, et al.: Randomized placebo-controlled trial of testosterone replacement in men with mild Leydig cell insufficiency following cytotoxic chemotherapy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 55:315-24, 2001.

234. Merza Z, Blumsohn A, Mah PM, et al.: Double-blind placebo-controlled study of testosterone patch therapy on bone turnover in men with borderline hypogonadism. Int J Androl 29:381-91, 2006.

235. Harman SM, Metter EJ, Tobin JD, et al.: Longitudinal effects of aging on serum total and free testosterone levels in healthy men. Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:724-31., 2001.

236. Deslypere JP, Vermeulen A: Aging and tissue androgens. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 53:430-4, 1981.

237. Deslypere JP, Vermeulen A: Influence of age on steroid concentration in skin and striated muscle in women and in cardiac muscle and lung tissue in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 60:648-53, 1985.

238. Mohr BA, Guay AT, O'Donnell AB, et al.: Normal, bound and nonbound testosterone levels in normally ageing men: results from the Massachusetts Male Ageing Study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 62:64-73, 2005.

239. Gruenewald DA, Matsumoto AM: Testosterone supplementation therapy for older men: potential benefits and risks. J Am Geriatr Soc 51:101-15, 2003.

240. Ly LP, Jimenez M, Zhuang TN, et al.: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial of transdermal dihydrotestosterone gel on muscular strength, mobility, and quality of life in older men with partial androgen deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:4078-88., 2001.

241. Kunelius P, Lukkarinen O, Hannuksela ML, et al.: The effects of transdermal dihydrotestosterone in the aging male: a prospective, randomized, double blind study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:1467-72, 2002.

242. Liu PY, Wishart SM, Handelsman DJ: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial of recombinant human chorionic gonadotropin on muscle strength and physical function and activity in older men with partial age-related androgen deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:3125-35, 2002.

243. Bhasin S, Calof OM, Storer TW, et al.: Drug insight: Testosterone and selective androgen receptor modulators as anabolic therapies for chronic illness and aging. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2:146-59, 2006.

244. Isidori AM, Giannetta E, Greco EA, et al.: Effects of testosterone on body composition, bone metabolism and serum lipid profile in middle-aged men: a meta-analysis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 63:280-93, 2005.

245. Tracz MJ, Sideras K, Bolona ER, et al.: Testosterone use in men and its effects on bone health. A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:2011-6, 2006.

246. Ottenbacher KJ, Ottenbacher ME, Ottenbacher AJ, et al.: Androgen treatment and muscle strength in elderly men: A meta-analysis. J Am Geriatr Soc 54:1666-73, 2006.

247. Haddad RM, Kennedy CC, Caples SM, et al.: Testosterone and cardiovascular risk in men: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Mayo Clin Proc 82:29-39, 2007.

248. Isidori AM, Giannetta E, Gianfrilli D, et al.: Effects of testosterone on sexual function in men: results of a meta-analysis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 63:381-94, 2005.

249. Bolona ER, Uraga MV, Haddad RM, et al.: Testosterone use in men with sexual dysfunction: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Mayo Clin Proc 82:20-8, 2007.

250. Calof OM, Singh AB, Lee ML, et al.: Adverse events associated with testosterone replacement in middle-aged and older men: a meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 60:1451-7, 2005.

251. Liverman CT, Blazer DG, (ed): Testosterone and Aging: Clinical Research Directions. Washington, DC, Institute of Medicine: The National Academies Press, 2004. Board on Health Sciences Policy

252. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, et al.: Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results From the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 288:321-33, 2002.

253. Kalin MF, Zumoff B: Sex hormones and coronary disease: a review of the clinical studies. Steroids 55:330-52, 1990.

254. Khaw KT, Dowsett M, Folkerd E, et al.: Endogenous testosterone and mortality due to all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer in men: European prospective investigation into cancer in Norfolk (EPIC-Norfolk) Prospective Population Study. Circulation 116:2694-701, 2007.

255. Laughlin GA, Barrett-Connor E, Bergstrom J: Low serum testosterone and mortality in older men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:68-75, 2008.

256. Smith GD, Ben-Shlomo Y, Beswick A, et al.: Cortisol, testosterone, and coronary heart disease: prospective evidence from the Caerphilly study. Circulation 112:332-40, 2005.

257. Araujo AB, Kupelian V, Page ST, et al.: Sex steroids and all-cause and cause-specific mortality in men. Arch Intern Med 167:1252-60, 2007.

258. Maggio M, Lauretani F, Ceda GP, et al.: Relationship between low levels of anabolic hormones and 6-year mortality in older men: the aging in the Chianti Area (InCHIANTI) study. Arch Intern Med 167:2249-54, 2007.

259. Swerdlow AJ, Higgins CD, Schoemaker MJ, et al.: Mortality in patients with Klinefelter syndrome in Britain: a cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:6516-22, 2005.

260. Roddam AW, Allen NE, Appleby P, et al.: Endogenous sex hormones and prostate cancer: a collaborative analysis of 18 prospective studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 100:170-83, 2008.

261. Conway AJ, Handelsman DJ, Lording DW, et al.: Use, misuse and abuse of androgens: The Endocrine Society of Australia consensus guidelines for androgen prescribing. Med J Aust 172:220-4, 2000.

262. Nieschlag E, Swerdloff R, Behre HM, et al.: Investigation, treatment and monitoring of late-onset hypogonadism in males: ISA, ISSAM, and EAU recommendations. Int J Androl 28:125-7, 2005.

263. Bhasin S, Cunningham GR, Hayes FJ, et al.: Testosterone therapy in adult men with androgen deficiency syndromes: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:1995-2010, 2006.

264. Bhasin S, Singh AB, Mac RP, et al.: Managing the risks of prostate disease during testosterone replacement therapy in older men: recommendations for a standardized monitoring plan. J Androl 24:299-311, 2003.

265. Tan RS, Salazar JA: Risks of testosterone replacement therapy in ageing men. Expert Opin Drug Saf 3:599-606, 2004.

266. Handelsman DJ: Trends and regional differences in testosterone prescribing in Australia: 1991-2001. Med J Aust 181:419-22, 2004.

267. Teruel JL, Aguilera A, Marcen R, et al.: Androgen therapy for anaemia of chronic renal failure. Scandanavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology 30:403-8, 1996.

268. Gascon A, Belvis JJ, Berisa F, et al.: Nandrolone decanoate is a good alternative for the treatment of anemia in elderly male patients on hemodialysis. Geriatric Nephrology & Urology 9:67-72, 1999.

269. Navarro JF, Mora C, Macia M, et al.: Randomized prospective comparison between erythropoietin and androgens in CAPD patients. Kidney Int 61:1537-44., 2002.

270. Ishak KG, Zimmerman HJ: Hepatotoxic effects of the anabolic-androgenic steroids. Semin Liver Dis 7:230-236, 1987.

271. Velazquez I, Alter BP: Androgens and liver tumors: Fanconi's anemia and non-Fanconi's conditions. Am J Hematol 77:257-67, 2004.

272. Sloane DE, Lee CW, Sheffer AL: Hereditary angioedema: Safety of long-term stanozolol therapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 120:654-8, 2007.

273. Banerji A, Sloane DE, Sheffer AL: Hereditary angioedema: a current state-of-the-art review, V: attenuated androgens for the treatment of hereditary angioedema. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 100:S19-22, 2008.

274. Bork K, Bygum A, Hardt J: Benefits and risks of danazol in hereditary angioedema: a long-term survey of 118 patients. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 100:153-61, 2008.

275. Bhasin S, Storer TW, Berman N, et al.: The effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on muscle size and strength in normal men. N Engl J Med 335:1-7, 1996.

276. Elashoff JD, Jacknow AD, Shain SG, et al.: Effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids on muscular strength. Ann Intern Med 115:387-393, 1991.

277. Storer TW, Magliano L, Woodhouse L, et al.: Testosterone dose-dependently increases maximal voluntary strength and leg power, but does not affect fatigability or specific tension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:1478-85, 2003.

278. Storer TW, Woodhouse L, Magliano L, et al.: Changes in muscle mass, muscle strength, and power but not physical function are related to testosterone dose in healthy older men. J Am Geriatr Soc 2008.

279. Bhasin S, Woodhouse L, Casaburi R, et al.: Older men are as responsive as young men to the anabolic effects of graded doses of testosterone on the skeletal muscle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:678-88, 2005.

280. Coviello AD, Lakshman K, Mazer NA, et al.: Differences in the apparent metabolic clearance rate of testosterone in young and older men with gonadotropin suppression receiving graded doses of testosterone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:4669-75, 2006.

281. Coviello AD, Kaplan B, Lakshman KM, et al.: Effects of graded doses of testosterone on erythropoiesis in healthy young and older men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:914-9, 2008.

282. Singh AB, Hsia S, Alaupovic P, et al.: The effects of varying doses of T on insulin sensitivity, plasma lipids, apolipoproteins, and C-reactive protein in healthy young men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:136-43, 2002.

283. Gray PB, Singh AB, Woodhouse LJ, et al.: Dose-dependent effects of testosterone on sexual function, mood and visuospatial cognition in older men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005.

284. Kotler DP, Tierney AR, Wang J, et al.: Magnitude of body-cell-mass depletion and the timing of death from wasting in AIDS. Am J Clin Nutr 50:444-7, 1989.

285. Moyle GJ, Schoelles K, Fahrbach K, et al.: Efficacy of selected treatments of HIV wasting: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 37 Suppl 5:S262-76, 2004.

286. Johns K, Beddall MJ, Corrin RC: Anabolic steroids for the treatment of weight loss in HIV-infected individuals. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD005483, 2005.

287. Bolding G, Sherr L, Maguire M, et al.: HIV risk behaviours among gay men who use anabolic steroids. Addiction 94:1829-35, 1999.

288. Lambert CP, Sullivan DH, Freeling SA, et al.: Effects of testosterone replacement and/or resistance exercise on the composition of megestrol acetate stimulated weight gain in elderly men: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:2100-6, 2002.

289. Mulligan K, Zackin R, Von Roenn JH, et al.: Testosterone supplementation of megestrol therapy does not enhance lean tissue accrual in men with human immunodeficiency virus-associated weight loss: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:563-70, 2007.

290. Wierman ME, Basson R, Davis SR, et al.: Androgen therapy in women: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:3697-710, 2006.

291. Arlt W, Callies F, van Vlijmen JC, et al.: Dehydroepiandrosterone replacement in women with adrenal insufficiency N Engl J Med 341:1013-20, 1999.

292. Gurnell EM, Hunt PJ, Curran SE, et al.: Long-term DHEA replacement in primary adrenal insufficiency: a randomized, controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:400-9, 2008.

293. Johannsson G, Burman P, Wiren L, et al.: Low dose dehydroepiandrosterone affects behavior in hypopituitary androgen-deficient women: a placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:2046-52, 2002.

294. Lovas K, Gebre-Medhin G, Trovik TS, et al.: Replacement of dehydroepiandrosterone in adrenal failure: no benefit for subjective health status and sexuality in a 9-month, randomized, parallel group clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:1112-8, 2003.

295. Miller KK, Biller BM, Beauregard C, et al.: Effects of testosterone replacement in androgen-deficient women with hypopituitarism: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:1683-90, 2006.

296. Shifren JL, Braunstein GD, Simon JA, et al.: Transdermal testosterone treatment in women with impaired sexual function after oophorectomy. N Engl J Med 343:682-8, 2000.

297. Davis S, Papalia MA, Norman RJ, et al.: Safety and efficacy of a testosterone metered-dose transdermal spray for treating decreased sexual satisfaction in premenopausal women: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 148:569-77, 2008.

298. Somboonporn W, Davis S, Seif MW, et al.: Testosterone for peri- and postmenopausal women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD004509, 2005.

299. Greenblatt RB, Barfield WE, Garner JF, et al.: Evaluation of an estrogen, androgen, estrogen-androgen combination, and a placebo in the treatment of the menopause. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 10:1547-58, 1950.

300. Sherwin BB, Gelfand MM: The role of androgens in the maintenance of sexual functioning in oophorectomized women. Psychosom Med 49:397-409, 1987.

301. Urman B, Pride SM, Yuen BH: Elevated serum testosterone, hirsutism, and virilism associated with combined androgen-estrogen hormone replacement therapy. Obstet Gynecol 77:1124-31, 1991.

302. Gerritsma EJ, Brocaar MP, Hakkesteegt MM, et al.: Virilization of the voice in post-menopausal women due to the anabolic steroid nandrolone decanoate (Decadurabolin). The effects of medication for one year. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 19:79-84, 1994.

303. Baker J: A report on alterations to the speaking and singing voices of four women following hormonal therapy with virilizing agents. J Voice 13:496-507, 1999.

304. Davis SR, McCloud P, Strauss BJG, et al.: Testosterone enhances estradiol's effects on postmenopausal bone density and sexuality. Maturitas 21:227-36, 1995.

305. Braunstein GD: Safety of testosterone treatment in postmenopausal women. Fertil Steril 88:1-17, 2007.

306. Miller KK, Grieco KA, Klibanski A: Testosterone administration in women with anorexia nervosa. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:1428-33, 2005.

307. Choi HH, Gray PB, Storer TW, et al.: Effects of testosterone replacement in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women with weight loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:1531-41, 2005.

308. Gordon C, Wallace DJ, Shinada S, et al.: Testosterone patches in the management of patients with mild/moderate systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxford) 47:334-8, 2008.

309. Ferreira IM, Verreschi IT, Nery LE, et al.: The influence of 6 months of oral anabolic steroids on body mass and respiratory muscles in undernourished COPD patients. Chest 114:19-28., 1998.

310. Casaburi R, Bhasin S, Cosentino L, et al.: Effects of testosterone and resistance training in men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 170:870-8, 2004.

311. Svartberg J, Aasebo U, Hjalmarsen A, et al.: Testosterone treatment improves body composition and sexual function in men with COPD, in a 6-month randomized controlled trial. Respir Med 98:906-13, 2004.

312. Weisberg J, Wanger J, Olson J, et al.: Megestrol acetate stimulates weight gain and ventilation in underweight COPD patients. Chest 121:1070-8, 2002.

313. Jankowska EA, Biel B, Majda J, et al.: Anabolic deficiency in men with chronic heart failure: prevalence and detrimental impact on survival. Circulation 114:1829-37, 2006.

314. Malkin CJ, Pugh PJ, West JN, et al.: Testosterone therapy in men with moderate severity heart failure: a double-blind randomized placebo controlled trial. Eur Heart J 27:57-64, 2006.

315. Handelsman DJ, Dong Q: Ontogenic regression: a model of stress and reproduction. In Sheppard K, Boublik JH, Funder JW, (eds): Stress and Reproduction. New York, Raven Press: 333-345, 1992. pp 333-345

316. Reid IR, Wattie DJ, Evans MC, et al.: Testosterone therapy in glucocorticoid-treated men. Arch Intern Med 156:1173-7, 1996.

317. Crawford BA, Liu PY, Kean M, et al.: Randomised, placebo-controlled trial of androgen effects on bone and muscle in men requiring long-term systemic glucocorticoid therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:3167-76, 2003.

318. Jeschke MG, Finnerty CC, Suman OE, et al.: The effect of oxandrolone on the endocrinologic, inflammatory, and hypermetabolic responses during the acute phase postburn. Ann Surg 246:351-60; discussion 360-2, 2007.

319. Bulger EM, Jurkovich GJ, Farver CL, et al.: Oxandrolone does not improve outcome of ventilator dependent surgical patients. Ann Surg 240:472-8; discussion 478-80, 2004.

320. Vandekerckhove P, Lilford R, Vail A, et al.: Androgens versus placebo or no treatment for idiopathic oligo/asthenospermia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD000150, 2000.

321. Hoberman JM, Yesalis CE: The history of synthetic testosterone. Sci Am 272:76-81, 1995.

322. Franke WW, Berendonk B: Hormonal doping and androgenization of athletes: a secret program of the German Democratic Republic government. Clin Chem 43:1262-79, 1997.

323. Bhasin S, Woodhouse L, Casaburi R, et al.: Testosterone dose-response relationships in healthy young men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 281:E1172-81, 2001.

324. Pope HG, Jr., Kouri EM, Hudson JI: Effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on mood and aggression in normal men: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57:133-40; discussion 155-6, 2000.

325. Kanayama G, Hudson JI, Pope HG, Jr.: Long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse: A looming public health concern? Drug Alcohol Depend 98:1-12, 2008.

326. Parkinson AB, Evans NA: Anabolic androgenic steroids: a survey of 500 users. Med Sci Sports Exerc 38:644-51, 2006.

327. Buckley WE, Yesalis CE, Freidl KE, et al.: Estimated prevalence of anabolic steroid use among male high school students. Journal of the American Medical Association 260:3441-3445, 1988.

328. Nilsson S: Androgenic anabolic steroid use among male adolescents in Falkenberg. Europen Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 48:9-11, 1995.

329. Handelsman DJ, Gupta L: Prevalence and risk factors for anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse in Australian secondary school students. Int J Androl 20:159-64, 1997.

330. Lambert MI, Titlestad SD, Schwellnus MP: Prevalence of androgenic-anabolic steroid use in adolescents in two regions of South Africa. S Afr Med J 88:876-80, 1998.

331. Ferenchick GS: Validity of self-report in identifying anabolic steroid use among weightlifters. J Gen Intern Med 11:554-6, 1996.

332. Pope HG, Kouri EM, Powell KF, et al.: Anabolic-androgenic steroid use among 133 prisoners. Compr Psychiatry 37:322-7, 1996.

333. Isacsson G, Garle M, Ljung EB, et al.: Anabolic steroids and violent crime - an epidemiological study at a jail in Stockholm, Sweden. Compr Psychiatry 39:203-5, 1998.

334. Catlin DH, Ahrens BD, Kucherova Y: Detection of norbolethone, an anabolic steroid never marketed, in athletes' urine. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 16:1273-5, 2002.

335. Death AK, McGrath KC, Kazlauskas R, et al.: Tetrahydrogestrinone is a potent androgen and progestin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:2498-500, 2004.

336. Catlin DH, Sekera MH, Ahrens BD, et al.: Tetrahydrogestrinone: discovery, synthesis, and detection. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 18:1245-9, 2004.

337. Sekera MH, Ahrens BD, Chang YC, et al.: Another designer steroid: discovery, synthesis, and detection of 'madol' in urine. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 19:781-4, 2005.

338. Handelsman DJ, Heather A: Androgen abuse in sports. Asian J Androl 10:403-15, 2008.

339. vandenBerg P, Neumark-Sztainer D, Cafri G, et al.: Steroid use among adolescents: longitudinal findings from Project EAT. Pediatrics 119:476-86, 2007.

340. McCabe SE, Brower KJ, West BT, et al.: Trends in non-medical use of anabolic steroids by U.S. college students: results from four national surveys. Drug Alcohol Depend 90:243-51, 2007.

341. Holma PK: Effects of an anabolic steroid (metandienone) on spermatogenesis. Contraception 15:151-162, 1977.

342. Knuth UA, Maniera H, Nieschlag E: Anabolic steroids and semen parameters in bodybuilders. Fertil Steril 52:1041-1047, 1989.

343. Turek PJ, Williams RH, Gilbaugh JH, et al.: The reversibility of anabolic steroid-induced azoospermia. J Urol 153:1628-30, 1995.

344. Sorensen M, Ingerslev HJ: Azoospermia in two bodybuilders taking anabolic steroids. Ugeskr Laeger 157:1044-5, 1995.

345. Gazvani MR, Buckett W, Luckas MJ, et al.: Conservative management of azoospermia following steroid abuse. Hum Reprod 12:1706-8, 1997.

346. Reyes RJ, Zicchi S, Hamed H, et al.: Surgical correction of gynaecomastia in bodybuilders. Br J Clin Pract 49:177-9, 1995.

347. Friedl KE: Reappraisal of health risks associated with use of high doses of oral and injectable androgenic steroids. NIDA Res Monogr 102:142-77, 1990.

348. Sklarek HM, Mantovani RP, Erens E, et al.: AIDS in a bodybuilder using anabolic steroids [letter]. N Engl J Med 311:1701, 1984.

349. Nemechek PM: Anabolic steroid users--another potential risk group for HIV infection [letter]. N Engl J Med 325:357, 1991.

350. Henrion R, Mandelbrot L, Delfieu D: HIV contamination after injections of anabolic steroids (letter). Presse Med 21:218, 1992.

351. Rich JD, Dickinson BP, Merriman NA, et al.: Hepatitis C virus infection related to anabolic-androgenic steroid injection in a recreational weight lifter [letter]. Am J Gastroenterol 93:1598, 1998.

352. Aitken C, Delalande C, Stanton K: Pumping iron, risking infection? Exposure to hepatitis C, hepatitis B and HIV among anabolic-androgenic steroid injectors in Victoria, Australia. Drug Alcohol Depend 65:303-8, 2002.

353. Rich JD, Dickinson BP, Feller A, et al.: The infectious complications of anabolic-androgenic steroid injection. Int J Sports Med 20:563-6, 1999.

354. Khankhanian NK, Hammers YA: Exuberant local tissue reaction to intramuscular injection of nandrolone decanoate (Deca-Durabolin) - a steroid compound in sesame seed oil base - mimicking soft tissue malignant tumors: a case report and review of the literature. Mil Med 157:670-4, 1992.

355. Evans NA: Local complications of self administered anabolic steroid injections. Br J Sports Med 31:349-50, 1997.

356. Freeman BJ, Rooker GD: Spontaneous rupture of the anterior cruciate ligament after anabolic steroids. Br J Sports Med 29:274-5, 1995.

357. Daniels JM, van Westerloo DJ, de Hon OM, et al.: [Rhabdomyolysis in a bodybuilder using steroids]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 150:1077-80, 2006.

358. Lepori M, Perren A, Gallino A: The popliteal-artery entrapment syndrome in a patient using anabolic steroids. N Engl J Med 346:1254-5, 2002.

359. Sahraian MA, Mottamedi M, Azimi AR, et al.: Androgen-induced cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in a young body builder: case report. BMC Neurol 4:22, 2004.

360. Liljeqvist S, Hellden A, Bergman U, et al.: Pulmonary embolism associated with the use of anabolic steroids. Eur J Intern Med 19:214-5, 2008.

361. Alaraj AM, Chamoun RB, Dahdaleh NS, et al.: Spontaneous subdural haematoma in anabolic steroids dependent weight lifters: reports of two cases and review of literature. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 147:85-7; discussion 87-8, 2005.

362. Petersson A, Garle M, Granath F, et al.: Convulsions in users of anabolic androgenic steroids: possible explanations. J Clin Psychopharmacol 27:723-5, 2007.

363. Pope HG, Katz DL: Affective and psychotic symptoms associated with anabolic steroid use. Am J Psychiatry 145:487-490, 1988.

364. Bahrke MS, Yesalis CE, Wright JE: Psychological and behavioural effects of endogenous testosterone levels and anabolic-androgenic steroids among male. An update. Sports Med 22:367-90, 1996.

365. Rockhold RW: Cardiovascular toxicity of anabolic steroids. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 33:497-520, 1993.

366. Melchert RB, Welder AA: Cardiovascular effects of androgenic-anabolic steroids. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27:1252-62, 1995.

367. Sullivan ML, Martinez CM, Gennis P, et al.: The cardiac toxicity of anabolic steroids. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 41:1-15, 1998.

368. Dhar R, Stout CW, Link MS, et al.: Cardiovascular toxicities of performance-enhancing substances in sports. Mayo Clin Proc 80:1307-15, 2005.

369. Furlanello F, Serdoz LV, Cappato R, et al.: Illicit drugs and cardiac arrhythmias in athletes. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 14:487-94, 2007.

370. Larkin GL: Carcinoma of the prostate. N Engl J Med 324:1892, 1991.

371. Roberts JT, Essenhigh DM: Adenocarcinoma of prostate in 40 year old body-builder. Lancet 2:742, 1986.

372. Nakata S, Hasumi M, Sato J, et al.: Prostate cancer associated with long-term intake of patent medicine containing methyltestosterone: a case report. Hinyokika Kiyo - Acta Urologica Japonica 43:791-3, 1997.

373. Hartgens F, Cheriex EC, Kuipers H: Prospective echocardiographic assessment of androgenic-anabolic steroids effects on cardiac structure and function in strength athletes. Int J Sports Med 24:344-51, 2003.

374. Chung T, Kelleher S, Liu PY, et al.: Effects of testosterone and nandrolone on cardiac function: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 66:235-45, 2007.

375. Jin B, Turner L, Walters WAW, et al.: Androgen or estrogen effects on the human prostate. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:4290-5, 1996.

376. Palatini P, Giada F, Garavelli G, et al.: Cardiovascular effects of anabolic steroids in weight-trained subjects. J Clin Pharmacol New Drugs 36:1132-40, 1996.

377. Krieg A, Scharhag J, Albers T, et al.: Cardiac tissue Doppler in steroid users. Int J Sports Med 28:638-43, 2007.

378. D'Andrea A, Caso P, Salerno G, et al.: Left ventricular early myocardial dysfunction after chronic misuse of anabolic androgenic steroids: a Doppler myocardial and strain imaging analysis. Br J Sports Med 41:149-55, 2007.

379. Lane HA, Grace F, Smith JC, et al.: Impaired vasoreactivity in bodybuilders using androgenic anabolic steroids. Eur J Clin Invest 36:483-8, 2006.

380. Nottin S, Nguyen LD, Terbah M, et al.: Cardiovascular effects of androgenic anabolic steroids in male bodybuilders determined by tissue Doppler imaging. Am J Cardiol 97:912-5, 2006.

381. Urhausen A, Albers T, Kindermann W: Are the cardiac effects of anabolic steroid abuse in strength athletes reversible? Heart 90:496-501, 2004.

382. Climstein M, O'Shea P, Adams KJ, et al.: The effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids upon resting and peak exercise left ventricular heart wall motion kinetics in male strength and power athletes. J Sci Med Sport 6:387-97, 2003.

383. Grace F, Sculthorpe N, Baker J, et al.: Blood pressure and rate pressure product response in males using high-dose anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS). J Sci Med Sport 6:307-12, 2003.

384. Karila TA, Karjalainen JE, Mantysaari MJ, et al.: Anabolic androgenic steroids produce dose-dependant increase in left ventricular mass in power atheletes, and this effect is potentiated by concomitant use of growth hormone. Int J Sports Med 24:337-43, 2003.

385. Sader MA, Griffiths KA, McCredie RJ, et al.: Androgenic anabolic steroids and arterial structure and function in male bodybuilders. J Am Coll Cardiol 37:224-30, 2001.

386. Di Bello V, Giorgi D, Bianchi M, et al.: Effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids on weight-lifters' myocardium: an ultrasonic videodensitometric study. Med Sci Sports Exerc 31:514-21, 1999.

387. Dickerman RD, Schaller F, Zachariah NY, et al.: Left ventricular size and function in elite bodybuilders using anabolic steroids. Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine 7:90-3, 1997.

388. Di Bello V, Pedrinelli R, Giorgi D, et al.: Ultrasonic videodensitometric analysis of two different models of left ventricular hypertrophy. Athlete's heart and hypertension. Hypertension 29:937-44, 1997.

389. Thiblin I, Petersson A: Pharmacoepidemiology of anabolic androgenic steroids: a review. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 19:27-44, 2005.

390. Sarna S, Sahi T, Koskenvuo M, et al.: Increased life expectancy of world class male athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25:237-44, 1993.

391. Sarna S, Kaprio J, Kujala UM, et al.: Health status of former elite athletes. The Finnish experience. Aging (Milano) 9:35-41, 1997.

392. Parssinen M, Kujala U, Vartiainen E, et al.: Increased premature mortality of competitive powerlifters suspected to have used anabolic agents. Int J Sports Med 21:225-7, 2000.

393. Kashkin KB, Kleber HD: Hooked on hormones? An anabolic steroid addiction hypothesis. Journal of the American Medical Association 262:3166-3170, 1989.

394. Fingerhood MI, Sullivan JT, Testa M, et al.: Abuse liability of testosterone. J Psychopharmacol (Oxf) 11:59-63, 1997.

395. Gill GV: Anabolic steroid induced hypogonadism treated with human chorionic gonadotropin. Postgrad Med J 74:45-6, 1998.

396. Boyadjiev NP, Georgieva KN, Massaldjieva RI, et al.: Reversible hypogonadism and azoospermia as a result of anabolic-androgenic steroid use in a bodybuilder with personality disorder. A case report. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 40:271-4, 2000.

397. Torres-Calleja J, Gonzalez-Unzaga M, DeCelis-Carrillo R, et al.: Effect of androgenic anabolic steroids on sperm quality and serum hormone levels in adult male bodybuilders. Life Sci 68:1769-74, 2001.

398. Menon DK: Successful treatment of anabolic steroid-induced azoospermia with human chorionic gonadotropin and human menopausal gonadotropin. Fertil Steril 79 Suppl 3:1659-61, 2003.

399. Drakeley A, Gazvani R, Lewis-Jones I: Duration of azoospermia following anabolic steroids. Fertil Steril 81:226, 2004.

400. Goldberg L, MacKinnon DP, Elliot DL, et al.: The adolescents training and learning to avoid steroids program: preventing drug use and promoting health behaviors. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 154:332-8, 2000.

401. Behre HM, Kliesch S, Leifke E, et al.: Long-term effect of testosterone therapy on bone mineral density in hypogonadal men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 82:2386-90, 1997.

402. Jockenhovel F, Vogel E, Reinhardt W, et al.: Effects of various modes of androgen substitution therapy on erythropoiesis. Eur J Med Res 2:293-8, 1997.

403. Wang C, Swedloff RS, Iranmanesh A, et al.: Transdermal testosterone gel improves sexual function, mood, muscle strength, and body composition parameters in hypogonadal men. Testosterone Gel Study Group. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 85:2839-53, 2000.

404. Wang C, Cunningham G, Dobs A, et al.: Long-term testosterone gel (AndroGel) treatment maintains beneficial effects on sexual function and mood, lean and fat mass, and bone mineral density in hypogonadal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:2085-98, 2004.

405. Aminorroaya A, Kelleher S, Conway AJ, et al.: Adequacy of androgen replacement influences bone density response to testosterone in androgen-deficient men. Eur J Endocrinol 152:881-6, 2005.

406. Wong FH, Pun KK, Wang C: Loss of bone mass in patients with Klinefelter's syndrome despite sufficient testosterone replacement. Osteoporos Int 3:3-7, 1993.

407. Ishizaka K, Suzuki M, Kageyama Y, et al.: Bone mineral density in hypogonadal men remains low after long-term testosterone replacement. Asian J Androl 4:117-21, 2002.

408. Anderson RA, Wallace AM, Sattar N, et al.: Evidence for tissue selectivity of the synthetic androgen 7 alpha-methyl-19-nortestosterone in hypogonadal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:2784-93, 2003.

409. Zacharin MR, Pua J, Kanumakala S: Bone mineral density outcomes following long-term treatment with subcutaneous testosterone pellet implants in male hypogonadism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 58:691-5, 2003.

410. Schubert M, Bullmann C, Minnemann T, et al.: Osteoporosis in male hypogonadism: responses to androgen substitution differ among men with primary and secondary hypogonadism. Horm Res 60:21-8, 2003.

411. Finkelstein JS, Klibanski A, Neer RM: A longitudinal evaluation of bone mineral density in adult men with histories of delayed puberty. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:1152-5, 1996.

412. Finkelstein JS, Neer RM, Biller BM, et al.: Osteopenia in men with a history of delayed puberty. N Engl J Med 326:600-4, 1992.

413. Huhtaniemi IT, Pye SR, Limer KL, et al.: Increased Estrogen Rather Than Decreased Androgen Action Is Associated with Longer Androgen Receptor CAG Repeats. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008.

414. Kicman AT: Pharmacology of anabolic steroids. Br J Pharmacol 154:502-21, 2008.

415. Dalton JT, Mukherjee A, Zhu Z, et al.: Discovery of nonsteroidal androgens. Biochemical & Biophysical Research Communications 244:1-4, 1998.

416. Thevis M, Schanzer W: Mass spectrometry of selective androgen receptor modulators. J Mass Spectrom 43:865-76, 2008.

417. Lubahn D, Joseph DR, Sullivan PM, et al.: Cloning of the human androgen receptor complementary DNA and localisation to the X-chromosome. Science 240:327-330, 1988.

418. Chang CS, Kokontis J, Liao ST: Molecular cloning of human and rat complementary DNA encoding androgen receptors. Science 240:324-6, 1988.

419. Trapman J, Klaassen P, Kuiper GG, et al.: Cloning, structure and expression of a cDNA encoding the human androgen receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 153:241-8, 1988.

420. Wilson JD: The use and misuse of androgens. Metabolism 29:1278-1295, 1980.

421. Negro-Vilar A: Selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs): a novel approach to androgen therapy for the new millennium. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84:3459-62, 1999.

422. Handelsman DJ, Conway AJ, Boylan LM: Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of testosterone pellets in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 71:216-222, 1990.

423. Deansley R, Parkes AS: Further experiments on the administration of hormones by the subcutaneous implantation of tablets. Lancet ii:606-608, 1938.

424. Kelleher S, Howe C, Conway AJ, et al.: Testosterone release rate and duration of action of testosterone pellet implants. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 60:420-8, 2004.

425. Vierhapper H, Nowotny P, Waldhausl W: Reduced production rates of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone in healthy men treated with rosiglitazone. Metabolism 52:230-2, 2003.

426. Handelsman DJ, Mackey MA, Howe C, et al.: Analysis of testosterone implants for androgen replacement therapy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 47:311-6, 1997.

427. Kelleher S, Turner L, Howe C, et al.: Extrusion of testosterone pellets: a randomized controlled clinical study. Clinical Endocrinology 51:469-471, 1999.

428. Kelleher S, Conway AJ, Handelsman DJ: A randomised controlled clinical trial of antibiotic impregnation of testosterone pellet implants to reduce extrusion rate. European Journal of Endocrinology 146:513-8, 2002.

429. Kelleher S, Conway AJ, Handelsman DJ: Influence of implantation site and track geometry on the extrusion rate and pharmacology of testosterone implants. Clinical Endocrinology 55:531-6, 2001.

430. Bals-Pratsch M, Knuth UA, Yoon YD, et al.: Transdermal testosterone substitution therapy for male hypogonadism. Lancet 2:943-6, 1986.

431. Findlay JC, Place VA, Snyder PJ: Transdermal delivery of testosterone. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 64:266-8, 1987.

432. Bals-Pratsch M, Langer K, Place VA, et al.: Substitution therapy of hypogonadal men with transdermal testosterone over one year. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 118:7-13, 1988.

433. Jordan WP, Jr., Atkinson LE, Lai C: Comparison of the skin irritation potential of two testosterone transdermal systems: an investigational system and a marketed product. Clin Ther 20:80-7, 1998.

434. Jordan WP, Jr.: Allergy and topical irritation associated with transdermal testosterone administration: a comparison of scrotal and nonscrotal transdermal systems. Am J Contact Dermat 8:108-13, 1997.

435. Meikle AW, Mazer NA, Moellmer JF, et al.: Enhanced transdermal delivery of testosterone across nonscrotal skin produces physiological concentrations of testosterone and its metabolites in hypogonadal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 74:623-628, 1992.

436. Arver S, Dobs AS, Meikle AW, et al.: Long-term efficacy and safety of a permeation-enhanced testosterone transdermal system in hypogonadal men. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 47:727-37, 1997.

437. Shomaker TS, Zhang J, Ashburn MA: A pilot study assessing the impact of heat on the transdermal delivery of testosterone. J Clin Pharmacol 41:677-82, 2001.

438. Bennett NJ: A burn-like lesion caused by a testosterone transdermal system. Burns 24:478-80, 1998.

439. Wilson DE, Kaidbey K, Boike SC, et al.: Use of topical corticosteroid pretreatment to reduce the incidence and severity of skin reactions associated with testosterone transdermal therapy. Clin Ther 20:299-306., 1998.

440. Guerin JF, Rollet J: Inhibition of spermatogenesis in men using various combinations of oral progestagens and percutaneous or oral androgens. Int J Androl 11:187-199, 1988.

441. Fiet J, Morville R, Chemana D, et al.: Percutaneous absorption of 5a-dihydrotestosterone in man. I Plasma androgen and gonadotrophin levels in normal adult men after percutaneous administration of 5a-dihydrotestosterone. Int J Androl 5:586-594, 1982.

442. Chemana D, Morville R, Fiet J, et al.: Percutaneous absorption of 5a-dihydrotestosterone in man. II Percutaneous administration of 5a-dihydrotestosterone in hypogonadal men with idiopathic haemochromatosis; clinical, metabolic and hormonal effectiveness. Int J Androl 5:595-606, 1982.

443. Wang C, Iranmanesh A, Berman N, et al.: Comparative pharmacokinetics of three doses of percutaneous dihydrotestosterone gel in healthy elderly men--a clinical research center study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 83:2749-57, 1998.

444. Swerdloff RS, Wang C, Cunningham G, et al.: Long-term pharmacokinetics of transdermal testosterone gel in hypogonadal men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 85:4500-10, 2000.

445. Rolf C, Kemper S, Lemmnitz G, et al.: Pharmacokinetics of a new transdermal testosterone gel in gonadotrophin-suppressed normal men. Eur J Endocrinol 146:673-9, 2002.

446. Steidle C, Schwartz S, Jacoby K, et al.: AA2500 testosterone gel normalizes androgen levels in aging males with improvements in body composition and sexual function. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:2673-81, 2003.

447. McNicholas TA, Dean JD, Mulder H, et al.: A novel testosterone gel formulation normalizes androgen levels in hypogonadal men, with improvements in body composition and sexual function. BJU Int 91:69-74, 2003.

448. Kuhnert B, Byrne M, Simoni M, et al.: Testosterone substitution with a new transdermal, hydroalcoholic gel applied to scrotal or non-scrotal skin: a multicentre trial. Eur J Endocrinol 153:317-26, 2005.

449. Delanoe D, Fougeyrollas B, Meyer L, et al.: Androgenisation of female partners of men on medroxyprogesterone acetate/percutaneous testosterone contraception. Lancet i:276, 1984.

450. Moore N, Paux G, Noblet C, et al.: Spouse-related drug side-effects. Lancet 1:468, 1988.

451. Yu YM, Punyasavatsu N, Elder D, et al.: Sexual development in a two-year-old boy induced by topical exposure to testosterone. Pediatrics 104:e23, 1999.

452. Bhowmick SK, Ricke T, Rettig KR: Sexual precocity in a 16-month-old boy induced by indirect topical exposure to testosterone. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 46:540-3, 2007.

453. Brachet C, Vermeulen J, Heinrichs C: Children's virilization and the use of a testosterone gel by their fathers. Eur J Pediatr 164:646-7, 2005.

454. Svoren BM, Wolfsdorf JI: Sexual development in a 21 month-old boy caused by testosterone contamination of a topical hydrocortisone cream. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 18:507-10, 2005.

455. Kunz GJ, Klein KO, Clemons RD, et al.: Virilization of young children after topical androgen use by their parents. Pediatrics 114:282-4, 2004.

456. Franklin SL, Geffner ME: Precocious puberty secondary to topical testosterone exposure. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 16:107-10, 2003.

457. Rolf C, Knie U, Lemmnitz G, et al.: Interpersonal testosterone transfer after topical application of a newly developed testosterone gel preparation. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 56:637-41, 2002.

458. Burris AS, Ewing LL, Sherins RJ: Initial trial of slow-release testosterone microspheres in hypogonadal men. Fertil Steril 50:493-497, 1988.

459. Bhasin S, Swerdloff RS, Steiner B, et al.: A biodegradable testosterone microcapsule formulation provides uniform eugonadal levels of testosterone for 10-11 weeks in hypogonadal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 74:75-83, 1992.

460. Amory JK, Anawalt BD, Blaskovich PD, et al.: Testosterone release from a subcutaneous, biodegradable microcapsule formulation (Viatrel) in hypogonadal men. J Androl 23:84-91, 2002.

461. Page ST, Bremner WJ, Clark RV, et al.: Nanomilled oral testosterone plus dutasteride effectively normalizes serum testosterone in normal men with induced hypogonadism. J Androl 29:222-7, 2008.

462. Amory JK, Bremner WJ: Oral testosterone in oil plus dutasteride in men: a pharmacokinetic study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:2610-7, 2005.

463. Amory JK, Page ST, Bremner WJ: Oral testosterone in oil: pharmacokinetic effects of 5alpha reduction by finasteride or dutasteride and food intake in men. J Androl 27:72-8, 2006.

464. Johnsen SG, Kampmann JP, Bennet EP, et al.: Enzyme induction by oral testosterone. Clin Pharmacol Ther 20:233-237, 1976.

465. Johnsen S: Long-term oral testosterone and liver function. Lancet 1:50, 1978.

466. Daggett PR, Wheeler MJ, Nabarro JD: Oral testosterone, a reappraisal. Horm Res 9:121-9, 1978.

467. Salehian B, Wang C, Alexander G, et al.: Pharmacokinetics, bioefficacy, and safety of sublingual testosterone cyclodextrin in hypogonadal men: comparison to testosterone enanthate--a clinical research center study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 80:3567-75, 1995.

468. Dobs AS, Hoover DR, Chen MC, et al.: Pharmacokinetic characteristics, efficacy, and safety of buccal testosterone in hypogonadal males: a pilot study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 83:33-9, 1998.

469. Mazer N, Bell D, Wu J, et al.: Comparison of the steady-state pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and variability of a transdermal testosterone patch versus a transdermal testosterone gel in hypogonadal men. J Sex Med 2:213-26, 2005.

470. Swerdloff RS, Wang C: Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent. Baillieres Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 12:501-6, 1998.

471. Junkman K: Long-acting steroids in reproduction. Recent Prog Horm Res 13:380-419, 1957.

472. Minto C, Howe C, Wishart S, et al.: Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of nandrolone esters in oil vehicle: effects of ester, injection site and volume. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 281:93-102, 1997.

473. Snyder PJ, Lawrence DA: Treatment of male hypogonadism with testosterone enanthate. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 51:1335-1339, 1980.

474. Cantrill JA, Dewis P, Large DM, et al.: Which testosterone replacement therapy? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 24:97-107, 1984.

475. Conway AJ, Boylan LM, Howe C, et al.: A randomised clinical trial of testosterone replacement therapy in hypogonadal men. Int J Androl 11:247-264, 1988.

476. Behre HM, Wang C, Handelsman DJ, et al.: Pharmacology of testosterone preparations. In Nieschlag E, Behre HM, (eds): Testosterone: Action Deficiency Substitution. 3rd ed. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 405-44, 2004. pp 405-44

477. Weinbauer GF, Marshall GR, Nieschlag E: New injectable testosterone ester maintains serum testosterone of castrated monkeys in the normal range for four months. Acta Endocrinol 113:128-132, 1986.

478. Behre HM, Nieschlag E: Testosterone buciclate (20 Aet-1) in hypogonadal men: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the new long-acting androgen ester. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75:1204-1210, 1992.

479. Behre HM, Baus S, Kliesch S, et al.: Potential of testosterone buciclate for male contraception: endocrine differences between responders and nonresponders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:2394-2403, 1995.

480. Zhang GY, Gu YQ, Wang XH, et al.: A pharmacokinetic study of injectable testosterone undecanoate in hypogonadal men. J Androl 19:761-8, 1998.

481. Nieschlag E, Buchter D, Von Eckardstein S, et al.: Repeated intramuscular injections of testosterone undecanoate for substitution therapy in hypogonadal men. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 51:757-63., 1999.

482. von Eckardstein S, Nieschlag E: Treatment of male hypogonadism with testosterone undecanoate injected at extended intervals of 12 weeks: a phase II study. J Androl 23:419-25, 2002.

483. Schubert M, Minnemann T, Hubler D, et al.: Intramuscular testosterone undecanoate: pharmacokinetic aspects of a novel testosterone formulation during long-term treatment of men with hypogonadism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:5429-34, 2004.

484. Gu YQ, Wang XH, Xu D, et al.: A multicenter contraceptive efficacy study of injectable testosterone undecanoate in healthy Chinese men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:562-8, 2003.

485. Gu YQ, Tong JS, Ma DZ, et al.: Male hormonal contraception: effects of injections of testosterone undecanoate and depot medroxyprogesterone acetate at eight-week intervals in chinese men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:2254-62, 2004.

486. Qoubaitary A, Meriggiola C, Ng CM, et al.: Pharmacokinetics of testosterone undecanoate injected alone or in combination with norethisterone enanthate in healthy men. J Androl 27:853-67, 2006.

487. Mommers E, Kersemaekers WM, Elliesen J, et al.: Male hormonal contraception: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:2572-80, 2008.

488. Bagchus WM, Hust R, Maris F, et al.: Important effect of food on the bioavailability of oral testosterone undecanoate. Pharmacotherapy 23:319-25, 2003.

489. Schnabel PG, Bagchus W, Lass H, et al.: The effect of food composition on serum testosterone levels after oral administration of Andriol Testocaps. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 66:579-85, 2007.

490. Tauber U, Schroder K, Dusterberg B, et al.: Absolute bioavailability of testosterone after oral administration of testosterone-undecanoate and testosterone. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 11:145-9, 1986.

491. Ahmed SF, Tucker P, Mayo A, et al.: Randomized, crossover comparison study of the short-term effect of oral testosterone undecanoate and intramuscular testosterone depot on linear growth and serum bone alkaline phosphatase. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 17:941-50, 2004.

492. Gooren LJ: A ten-year safety study of the oral androgen testosterone undecanoate. J Androl 15:212-5., 1994.

493. Butler GE, Sellar RE, Walker RF, et al.: Oral testosterone undecanoate in the management of delayed puberty in boys: pharmacokinetics and effects on sexual maturation and growth. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75:37-44, 1992.

494. Brown DC, Butler GE, Kelnar CJ, et al.: A double blind, placebo controlled study of the effects of low dose testosterone undecanoate on the growth of small for age, prepubertal boys. Arch Dis Child 73:131-5, 1995.

495. Albanese A, Kewley GD, Long A, et al.: Oral treatment for constitutional delay of growth and puberty in boys: a randomised trial of an anabolic steroid or testosterone undecanoate. Arch Dis Child 71:315-7, 1994.

496. Luisi M, Franchi E: Double-blind group comparative study of testosterone undecanoate and mesterolone in hypogonadal male patients. Journal of Endocrinological Investigations 3:305-308, 1980.

497. Androgen therapy of aplastic anaemia--a prospective study of 352 cases. Scand J Haematol 22:343-56, 1979.

498. Shimoda K, Shide K, Kamezaki K, et al.: The effect of anabolic steroids on anemia in myelofibrosis with myeloid metaplasia: retrospective analysis of 39 patients in Japan. Int J Hematol 85:338-43, 2007.

499. Gennari C, AgnusDei D, Gonnelli S, et al.: Effects of nandrolone decanoate therapy on bone mass and calcium metabolism in women with established post-menopausal osteoporosis: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Maturitas 11:187-97, 1989.

500. Frisoli A, Jr., Chaves PH, Pinheiro MM, et al.: The effect of nandrolone decanoate on bone mineral density, muscle mass, and hemoglobin levels in elderly women with osteoporosis: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 60:648-53, 2005.

501. Simpson ER, Mahendroo MS, Means GD, et al.: Aromatase cytochrome P450, the enzyme responsible for estrogen biosynthesis. Endocr Rev 15:342-55, 1994.

502. Hong Y, Yu B, Sherman M, et al.: Molecular basis for the aromatization reaction and exemestane-mediated irreversible inhibition of human aromatase. Mol Endocrinol 21:401-14, 2007.

503. Hobbs CJ, Jones RE, Plymate SR: Nandrolone, a 19-nortestosterone, enhances insulin-independent glucose uptake in normal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:1582-5, 1996.

504. Behre HM, Kliesch S, Lemcke B, et al.: Suppression of spermatogenesis to azoospermia by combined administration of GnRH antagonist and 19-nortestosterone cannot be maintained by this non-aromatizable androgen alone. Hum Reprod 16:2570-7, 2001.

505. Attardi BJ, Pham TC, Radler LC, et al.: Dimethandrolone (7alpha,11beta-dimethyl-19-nortestosterone) and 11beta-methyl-19-nortestosterone are not converted to aromatic A-ring products in the presence of recombinant human aromatase. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 110:214-22, 2008.

506. Lemus AE, Enriquez J, Garcia GA, et al.: 5alpha-reduction of norethisterone enhances its binding affinity for androgen receptors but diminishes its androgenic potency. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 60:121-9, 1997.

507. Geusens P: Nandrolone decanoate: pharmacological properties and therapeutic use in osteoporosis. Clin Rheumatol 14 Suppl 3:32-9, 1995.

508. Sundaram K, Kumar N: 7alpha-methyl-19-nortestosterone (MENT): the optimal androgen for male contraception and replacement therapy. Int J Androl 23 Suppl 2:13-5, 2000.

509. Cook CE, Kepler JA: 7alpha,11beta-Dimethyl-19-nortestosterone: a potent and selective androgen response modulator with prostate-sparing properties. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 15:1213-6, 2005.

510. Suvisaari J, Sundaram K, Noe G, et al.: Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of 7a-methyl-19-nortestosterone after intramuscular administration in healthy men. Hum Reprod 12:967-73, 1997.

511. Sundaram K, Kumar N, Bardin CW: 7 alpha-Methyl-19-nortestosterone: an ideal androgen for replacement therapy. Recent Prog Horm Res 49:373-6, 1994.

512. Sundaram K, Kumar N, Bardin CW: 7a-Methyl-nortestosterone (MENT): the optimal androgen for male contraception. Ann Med 25:199-205, 1993.

513. Attardi BJ, Hild SA, Reel JR: Dimethandrolone undecanoate: a new potent orally active androgen with progestational activity. Endocrinology 147:3016-26, 2006.

514. Sundaram K, Kumar N, Monder C, et al.: Different patterns of metabolism determine the relative anabolic activity of 19-norandrogens. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry & Molecular Biology 53:253-7, 1995.

515. Toth M, Zakar T: Relative binding affinities of testosterone, 19-nortestosterone and their 5 alpha-reduced derivatives to the androgen receptor and to other androgen-binding proteins: a suggested role of 5 alpha-reductive steroid metabolism in the dissociation of "myotropic" and "androgenic" activities of 19-nortestosterone. J Steroid Biochem 17:653-60, 1982.

516. LaMorte A, Kumar N, Bardin CW, et al.: Aromatization of 7 alpha-methyl-19-nortestosterone by human placental microsomes in vitro. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry & Molecular Biology 48:297-304, 1994.

517. Moslemi S, Dintinger T, Dehennin L, et al.: Different in vitro metabolism of 7 alpha-methyl-19-nortestosterone by human and equine aromatases. Eur J Biochem 214:569-76, 1993.

518. Yin D, Xu H, He Y, et al.: Pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and metabolism of acetothiolutamide, a novel nonsteroidal agonist for the androgen receptor. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 304:1323-33., 2002.

519. Gao W, Dalton JT: Ockham's razor and selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs): are we overlooking the role of 5alpha-reductase? Mol Interv 7:10-3, 2007.

520. Sengupta S, Jordan VC: Selective estrogen modulators as an anticancer tool: mechanisms of efficiency and resistance. Adv Exp Med Biol 630:206-19, 2008.

521. Gao W, Dalton JT: Expanding the therapeutic use of androgens via selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs). Drug Discov Today 12:241-8, 2007.

522. Thole Z, Manso G, Salgueiro E, et al.: Hepatotoxicity induced by antiandrogens: a review of the literature. Urol Int 73:289-95, 2004.

523. Manso G, Thole Z, Salgueiro E, et al.: Spontaneous reporting of hepatotoxicity associated with antiandrogens: data from the Spanish pharmacovigilance system. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 15:253-9, 2006.

524. Minnemann T, Schubert M, Hubler D, et al.: A four-year efficacy and safety study of the long-acting parenteral testosterone undecanoate. Aging Male 10:155-8, 2007.

525. Saad F, Kamischke A, Yassin A, et al.: More than eight years' hands-on experience with the novel long-acting parenteral testosterone undecanoate. Asian J Androl 9:291-7, 2007.

526. Stege R, Frohlander N, Carlstrom K, et al.: Steroid-sensitive proteins, growth hormone and somatomedin C in prostatic cancer: effects of parenteral and oral estrogen therapy. Prostate 10:333-8, 1987.

527. Serin IS, Ozcelik B, Basbug M, et al.: Long-term effects of continuous oral and transdermal estrogen replacement therapy on sex hormone binding globulin and free testosterone levels. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 99:222-5, 2001.

528. Small M, Beastall GH, Semple CG, et al.: Alterations of hormone levels in normal males given the anabolic steroid stanozolol. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 21:49-55, 1984.

529. Christiansen K: Behavioural correlates of testosterone. In Nieschlag E, Behre HM, (eds): Testosterone: Action Deficiency Substitution. 3rd ed. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 125-72, 2004. pp 125-72

530. Anderson RA, Bancroft J, Wu FCW: The effects of exogenous testosterone on sexuality and mood of normal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75:1503-1507, 1992.

531. Buena F, Peterson MA, Swerdloff RS, et al.: Sexual function does not change when serum testosterone levels are pharmacologically varied within the normal male range. Fertil Steril 59:1118-23, 1993.

532. Bagatell CJ, Heiman JR, Matsumoto AM, et al.: Metabolic and behavioral effects of high-dose, exogenous testosterone in healthy men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79:561-7, 1994.

533. Tricker R, Casaburi R, Storer TW, et al.: The effects of supraphysiological doses of testosterone on angry behavior in healthy eugonadal men--a clinical research center study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:3754-8, 1996.

534. O'Connor DB, Archer J, Hair WM, et al.: Exogenous testosterone, aggression, and mood in eugonadal and hypogonadal men. Physiol Behav 75:557-66, 2002.

535. O'Connor DB, Archer J, Wu FC: Effects of testosterone on mood, aggression, and sexual behavior in young men: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:2837-45, 2004.

536. Meriggiola MC, Cerpolini S, Bremner WJ, et al.: Acceptability of an injectable male contraceptive regimen of norethisterone enanthate and testosterone undecanoate for men. Hum Reprod 21:2033-40, 2006.

537. Su TP, Pagliaro M, Schmidt PJ, et al.: Neuropsychiatric effects of anabolic steroids in male normal volunteers. Journal of the American Medical Association 269:2760-4, 1993.

538. Yates WR, Perry PJ, MacIndoe J, et al.: Psychosexual effects of three doses of testosterone cycling in normal men. Biol Psychiatry 45:254-60, 1999.

539. Daly RC, Su TP, Schmidt PJ, et al.: Neuroendocrine and behavioral effects of high-dose anabolic steroid administration in male normal volunteers. Psychoneuroendocrinology 28:317-31, 2003.

540. Schmidt PJ, Berlin KL, Danaceau MA, et al.: The effects of pharmacologically induced hypogonadism on mood in healthy men. Arch Gen Psychiatry 61:997-1004, 2004.

541. WHO Task Force on Methods for the Regulation of Male Fertility: Contraceptive efficacy of testosterone-induced azoospermia and oligozoospermia in normal men. Fertil Steril 65:821-9, 1996.

542. WHO Task Force on Methods for the Regulation of Male Fertility: Contraceptive efficacy of testosterone-induced azoospermia in normal men. Lancet 336:955-959, 1990.

543. Bjorkvist K, Nygren T, Bjorklund AC, et al.: Testosterone intake and aggressiveness: real effect or anticipation? Aggressive Behavior 20:17-26, 1994.

544. Archer J: The influence of testosterone on human aggression. Br J Psychiatry 82:1-28, 1991.

545. Melnik B, Jansen T, Grabbe S: Abuse of anabolic-androgenic steroids and bodybuilding acne: an underestimated health problem. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 5:110-7, 2007.

546. Grunstein RR, Handelsman DJ, Lawrence SJ, et al.: Hypothalamic dysfunction in sleep apnea: reversal by nasal continuous positive airways pressure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 68:352-358, 1989.

547. Sandblom RE, Matsumoto AM, Scoene RB, et al.: Obstructive sleep apnea induced by testosterone administration. N Engl J Med 308:508-510, 1983.

548. Liu PY, Yee BJ, Wishart SM, et al.: The short-term effects of high dose testosterone on sleep, breathing and function in older men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:3605-13, 2003.

549. Welder AA, Robertson JW, Melchert RB: Toxic effects of anabolic-androgenic steroids in primary rat hepatic cell cultures. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 33:187-95, 1995.

550. Gitlin N, Korner P, Yang HM: Liver function in postmenopausal women on estrogen-androgen hormone replacement therapy: a meta-analysis of eight clinical trials. Menopause 6:216-24, 1999.

551. Gelfand MM, Wiita B: Androgen and estrogen-androgen hormone replacement therapy: a review of the safety literature, 1941 to 1996. Clin Ther 19:383-404; discussion 367-8, 1997.

552. Pertusi R, Dickerman RD, McConathy WJ: Evaluation of aminotransferase elevations in a bodybuilder using anabolic steroids: hepatitis or rhabdomyolysis? J Am Osteopath Assoc 101:391-4, 2001.

553. Tsokos M, Erbersdobler A: Pathology of peliosis. Forensic Sci Int 149:25-33, 2005.

554. Falk H, Thomas LB, Popper H, et al.: Hepatic angiosarcoma associated with androgenic-anabolic steroids. Lancet 2:1120-3, 1979.

555. Daneshmend TK, Bradfield JW: Hepatic angiosarcoma associated with androgenic-anabolic steroids. Lancet 2:1249, 1979.

556. Mackey MA, Conway AJ, Handelsman DJ: Tolerability of intramuscular injections of testosterone ester in an oil vehicle. Hum Reprod 10:862-5, 1995.

557. Bhagat R, Holmes IH, Kulaga A, et al.: Self-injection with olive oil. A cause of lipoid pneumonia. Chest 107:875-6, 1995.

558. Darsow U, Bruckbauer H, Worret WI, et al.: Subcutaneous oleomas induced by self-injection of sesame seed oil for muscle augmentation. J Am Acad Dermatol 42:292-4, 2000.

559. Zitzmann M, Faber S, Nieschlag E: Association of specific symptoms and metabolic risks with serum testosterone in older men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:4335-43, 2006.

560. Mooradian AD, Morley JE, Korenman SG: Biological actions of androgens. Endocr Rev 8:1-28, 1987.

561. Palacios A, Campfield LA, McClure RD, et al.: Effect of testosterone enanthate on hematopoesis in normal men. Fertil Steril 40:100-104, 1983.

562. Drinka PJ, Jochen AL, Cuisinier M, et al.: Polycythemia as a complication of testosterone replacement therapy in nursing home men with low testosterone levels. Journal of the American Geriatric Society 43:899-901, 1995.

563. Viallard JF, Marit G, Mercie P, et al.: Polycythaemia as a complication of transdermal testosterone therapy. Br J Haematol 110:237-8, 2000.

564. Siddique H, Smith JC, Corrall RJ: Reversal of polycythaemia induced by intramuscular androgen replacement using transdermal testosterone therapy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 60:143-5, 2004.

565. Wu JP, Gu FL: The prostate 41-65 years post castration. Chin Med J (Engl) 100:271-2, 1987.

566. Swerdlow AJ, Schoemaker MJ, Higgins CD, et al.: Cancer incidence and mortality in men with Klinefelter syndrome: a cohort study. J Natl Cancer Inst 97:1204-10, 2005.

567. Behre HM, Bohmeyer J, Nieschlag E: Prostate volume in testosterone-treated and untreated hypogonadal men in comparison to age-matched normal controls. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 40:341-9, 1994.

568. Jin B, Conway AJ, Handelsman DJ: Effects of androgen deficiency and replacement on prostate zonal volumes. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 54:437-45., 2001.

569. Handelsman DJ: The safety of androgens: prostate and cardiovascular disease. In Wang C, (eds): Male Reproductive Function. Boston, Kluwer Academic Publishers: 173-90, 1998. pp 173-90

570. Hormones in advanced cancer. Br Med J 2:760-3, 1971.

571. Muggia FM: Overview of cancer-related hypercalcemia: epidemiology and etiology. Semin Oncol 17:3-9, 1990.